Questionnaire-Based surveys Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Poll Based reviews - Research Paper Example One of the best and well known methods of gathering any significant information are the studies; the essential goal of an overview is to assemble information about different parts of the people, for example, their convictions, thoughts, perspectives and discernments. The review is chiefly utilized in the fields of brain research, showcasing research, open organization, general wellbeing and correspondence studiesto study the members engaged with the information assortment process (Yaoxiang, &Lihai, 2008). The overview can either concentrate on some authentic data about the people or may gather assessment of the respondents. The poll based studies are utilized particularly by Marketing and Human Resource Departments as they include the specialists who need to accumulate point by point data about the view of their partners with the goal that they can meet their necessities (DeMooji and Hoftsedd, 2010; Ferguson and Rio, 2010). These overviews are much of the time utilized by them to give inside and out data about the regions that ought to be centered around by an enterprise so it can execute suitable techniques inside the business activities for improving its profitability and execution. In poll based reviews, the competitors need to fill the survey without anyone else and need to decipher the questions’ implications all alone. While, in meet based studies, the analyst poses the inquiries to respondents with the goal that more inside and out information can be gathered. The information gathered from the poll based overviews is quantitative that permits simple understanding of data that is accumulated. Then again, talk with meetings are tedious and information gathered will require more opportunity for investigation; be that as it may, the data in talk with studies is of a higher caliber (Brugger, 2010). Poll based studies The poll based studies include the structuring and advancement of a survey that will guarantee that evaluation about the mentalities, suppositions and view of the respondents is done in a powerful way. The principle component in this examination technique is the survey as it is the key instrument for social occasion data about a specific issue or authentic information on the members (Kalpana&Jeyakumar, 2011). As per Fanning (2005), the poll improvement is a basic angle in survey based review as the scientists need to guarantee that it has every one of those inquiries expressed that will help them in recovering the necessary data viably. Since surveys are self-regulated, the sequencing of inquiries alongside their wordings is significant determinants of the information quality; thusly, a sufficient measure of time ought to be spent on building up the poll with the goal that genuine and verifiable outcomes can be drawn from the examination (Lee, Benoit-Bryan and Johnson, 2010). The poll based reviews can happen in three different ways for example online overviews, regular postal mail studies and up close and pe rsonal studies. The most recent pattern is of online studies as it permits information to be gathered rapidly and investigation of the information should be possible with the

Thomas Paine :: essays research papers

Thomas Paine In September of 1776, on the edges of Newark, among the drained, disheartened, fighters, as they stopped from their day by day retreat, sat Thomas Paine. He composed numerous papers that would majorly affect the result of the journey for autonomy. Brought into the world the child of a Quaker Laymaker on January 29th, 1737 at Thetford, Norfolk England. He got fundamental rudimentary instruction, and began to work for his dad as a disciple, and later as an extract official. He was not a tremendous accomplishment at either, and was in truth terminated twice from the activity as an extract official. At the point when he showed up in Philadelphia on November 30th 1774, he was debilitated and hot, and must be carried on a cot. With a letter of suggestion from Ben Franklin, he was acknowledged into a clinic and given unique consideration, until he recouped. With that equivalent letter from Ben Franklin, he discovered numerous entryways opened for him, including occupations mentoring a considerable lot of the children of the wealthiest men in Philadelphia. Â Â Â Â Â Paine began once more, by distributing African Slavery In America, in the spring of 1775, wherein he censured servitude in America as being out of line what's more, insensitive. At about this equivalent time, he turned into the co-proofreader for the Pennsylvania Magazine. At the point when he showed up in Philadelphia, Paine saw the strain, and the defiant demeanor, that was ceaselessly getting bigger, after the Boston Tea Party. As Paine would like to think, the Colonies had all the option to rebel against a government that forced duties on them, and which didn't give them the privilege of portrayal in the Parliament at Westminster. At that point he went one huge advance further, he concluded there was no explanation behind the Colonies to remain reliant on Britain. He distributed his conclusions in the American freedom flyer Common Sense. Â Â Â Â Â In Common Sense Paine expresses that at some point or another Independence from Britain must come, since America had put some distance between the homeland. He felt that the capacity of government in the public eye was to just be a controller, and along these lines quite basic. His solid convictions made him a significant impact on the Revelation Of Independence. Â â â â â He joined General Washington in his fight against General Howe in the War of Independence. Where he propelled numerous despondent fighters who required consolation. The withdrawing of General Washington's military was a moderate, day by day undertaking. Being an Englishman himself, Paine realized that the British foe, would not pay attention to the Revolutionary Army and knew about strategies of the English Army, and could inform the Revolutionary Army with respect to what was not out of the ordinary. The English were courteous in the manner that they didn't assault around evening time.

Will a Cash Advance Show up on Your Credit Report

Will a Cash Advance Show up on Your Credit Report Will a Cash Advance Show up on Your Credit Report? Will a Cash Advance Show up on Your Credit Report?While a cash advance wont necessarily show up on your credit report, there are still ways that taking one out could hurt your credit score.When you need cash during an emergencyâ€"and you dont have an emergency fundâ€"it’s easy to only think about the short-term. Who cares how much this sketchy online loan from RealLoansNotaScam.com costs? Forget that this “lender” you found on Craigslist is literally a guy handing wadded-up ones out of the back of a Winnebagoâ€"you need cash and you need it now!And yet, those long-term considerations can really come around to bite you in the behind, so they are good to keep in mind. Take cash advances for example. If you take one out, will it end up on your credit report? How will it affect your score? What even is a cash advance anyway?That’s why we’re here. So sit back, take a deep breath, and remain calm as we answer your questions about cash advances, credit reports, and how the two rel ate.How do credit reports work?Credit reports are documents that contain a record of your borrowing history. They include stuff like outstanding balances, history of on-time payment (and any late or missed payments), the types of loans and credit cards youve taken out, accounts that have been sent to collections, bankruptcy filings, hard credit checks, etc. Most of the information on your credit report remains there for seven years, although some information, like bankruptcies, will stay on your report for longer.These reports are created and maintained by the three major credit bureaus: Experian, TransUnion, and Equifax. Since some lenders, debt collectors, landlords, etc. might report consumer data to some but not all of the bureaus, information can vary across the reports. For this reason, you don’t actually have one credit report; you have three. And your credit score can change depending on which credit report was used to create it.What is a cash advance?There are two types o f cash advances. The first type is a feature on your credit card, where you can use the card to take out cash. The amount of cash that you withdraw (plus an extra fee and any ATM fees you might also incur) is then added to your credit card balance in the same way that a regular purchase would be added.Aside from the additional cash advance fee, credit card cash advances differ in a couple key ways from regular credit card transactions. First, they come with a higher APR than standard transactions. Second, there is no 30-day grace period for interest on these transactions; once they are added to your balance, interest starts accruing immediately. All in all, taking out a cash advance on your credit card is a good deal more expensive than simply using your card to make a purchase.The second type of cash advance is a type of short-term no credit check loan. Similar to payday loans, these cash advance loans are advertised as being an “advance” on the borrower’s next paycheck. The typical repayment term for these loans is approximately two weeks, after which time the loan is to be repaid in a single lump sumâ€"unlike traditional installment loans, which are paid off in a series of smaller payments over time.The interest rates for these payday cash advances are extremely high, with an average APR over 300 percent. While their interest rates look reasonable in the short-term, the difficulty that many customers have repaying these loans can often mean rolling their loan over or paying it off and immediately borrowing a new one. The more that a person rolls over or reborrows their loan in order to make their payments, the more likely they are to become trapped in a predatory cycle of debt.Are credit card cash advances added to your credit report?The answer to this question is: kinda. Anytime you add (or subtract) from your credit card balance, that change is noted on your credit report. So a credit card cash advance will show up on your report as an addition to y our credit card balance, but it won’t be noted any differently than a regular transaction would be.So can a credit card cash advance negatively affect your credit? It can, but it’s not likely to. When it comes to your credit card balances, it’s a good idea to keep them pretty low relative to your total credit limitâ€"even if you pay off your balances in full every month. Keeping your debt utilization ratio beneath 30 percent (meaning that you never spend more than 30 percent of your credit limit) will mostly keep those balances from negatively affecting your credit.In order for a credit card cash advance to negatively affect your credit score, it would have to either push your balances above 30 percent or it would have to be such a massive increase to your balances that it would reflect a major change to your total amounts owed. Unless you are right beneath that 30 percent ratio or are taking out thousands of dollars worth of cash advances in a short period of time, your score will be unaffected.Will a payday cash advance loan show up on your credit report?The answer here is “no” with a small caveat. Payday cash advances are part of a subset of bad credit loans called “no credit check loans.” This subset includes cash advance loans, payday loans, and title loans. Since these no credit check lenders do not run any checks on your credit history during their application process, they also do not report your payment information to the credit bureaus.Regular lenders like banks will always run a hard credit check when you apply for a personal loan. That hard check returns a full copy of your credit report and gets noted on the report itself. These checks will often lower your score slightly and can do so for up to two years. Many bad credit lenders run what’s called a “soft” check on your score, which returns less information and won’t affect your score at all. Many of these lenders, like OppLoans, also report your payment information, which ca n help your score if those payments are being made on-time.No credit check lenders,  on the other hand, do not run any kind of credit check and do not report payment information. They do, however, send unpaid accounts to collection agencies. And those agencies will report those accounts to the credit bureaus. (The exception is title lenders, who will repossess your car in order to repay the amount owed.) So while a payday cash advance loan will not end up on your credit report and won’t affect your score, an unpaid cash advance loan will indeed show up on your report and hurt your credit score.To learn more about credit reports, check out these related posts and articles from OppLoans:How Long Do Black Marks Stay On Your Credit Report?Can You Have Bad Credit Even With a Good Income?How Do You Contest Errors On Your Credit Report?What other questions do you have about credit reports?  We want to hear from you!  You can  email us  or you can find us on  Facebook  and  Twitter.

The Media s Role Of A Democratic Nation - 1496 Words

The news media is an important aspect of a democratic nation, as one of their roles is to be a voice of the public — to mediate between the public and the government. Anderson (2007) asserts that the normative roles of the news media in a democratic society are to undertake the role of the fourth estate, act as a watchdog, and when necessary, as a counterbalance to those in society who abuse their power. In other words, the media’s function in society is critical to ensuring a balanced governance and providing reliable information to the public. It is the primary institution within which the public can better understand its society and the world around them. This paper synthesizes my research findings regarding the saturation of†¦show more content†¦They are also expected to report news that informs, engages and educates the public on issues that affect them, news that is independent of vested interest (Mcquail, 1994). Most of the ethical codes as stated above, concentrate on providing reliable information to the public as well as avoiding bias and sensationalism in the news. On the other hand, Atton (2003) describes alternative media as a critical means to challenge the standardised and professionalised practices of mainstream media. It is guided by a purpose other than profit, unlike mainstream media which is often structured to promote consumption of the products it advertises (Skinner, 2009). Alternative media does not claim to be objective. It does not consider itself bound by the conventions of journalism. It sees itself as providing a platform for everyone to voice their opinions (i.e. a platform for horizontal communication) (Hackett Zhao, 2002). What I found through my research is that mainstream media does not always follow its role of maintaining ‘ideal’ journalistic standards. It more often focuses on reporting sensational news for entertainment commercial purposes, rather than news that intellectually informs, engages and educates the public. Mehrotra (2011) defines media sensationalism as â€Å"the style of reporting news to the public which involves use of fear, anger, excitement and crude thrill undertaken by the media to increase the

The Rape of Europa Essay - 632 Words

The Rape of Europa Culture is the total of the inherited ideas, values, beliefs, and knowledge which constitute the shared basis of social action. Every society across the world has adopted or created some sort of cultural heritage which they follow. Over centuries in Europe, several great empires have attempted to unite the European nations together leaving behind ruins of once gleaming cities. Could culture survive however if all pieces of artwork and historic architecture were obliterated by war? This culture may not be widely practiced but it will not be lost, having artwork and architecture simply enhance the cultural acceptance. Easily seen through the resurrecting of Babylonian structure in Germany today, the ancient culture in†¦show more content†¦The culture however was not dead but thriving. Prophesized by Nebuchadnezzar that Babylon would be seceded by the exact countries that did and that a second Babylon would be built again, the Strasburg site directly shows the prophecy come eer ily true. With this building along with the restoration of artifacts from the original Babylon, the culture was coming back in the ignorance of man and false worship. Not only did Germany begin to reconstruct the biblical city but Iraq also did under the control of Saddam Hussein. Following the idea of uniting the European countries, Saddam began to reconstruct the ancient city of Babylon directly on top of the original. Trying to unite the west with Islam, the attempt coincides near perfectly with the cultural belief of having other Godly figures and the prophecy of what was to come with the second Babylon. Both with Germany and Iraq, when the cultural beliefs of straying from God and mankind with their power seemingly above any other take over the societies experience economic and social turmoil. Cultural beliefs are reminded everyday of their significance in our lives through the preservation of artwork and architecture. If these were to be completely obliterated in war the cul ture does not simply stop but may have a dampening effect. A culture over time could very well die out but just because there is no evidence does not mean it’s dead, the artwork and architecture simply increase the social awareness and isShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Rape Of Europa1117 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"The Rape of Europa† is a painting by the Italian artist Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), painted between 1560-62 in Venice. The work is inspired by a story from Ovid’s Metamorphoses about one of Zeus’ abduction of Europa. Zeus, also known as Jupiter, transforms himself into a beautiful white bull and joins a herd grazing near the seashore. When Europa came over to him, Zeus enticed her to climb onto his back. He then seized the opportunity and rode into the sea towards Crete while Europa clung toRead MoreRape And The Mortal Rapists1437 Words   |  6 PagesGreco-Roman mythic narrative rape is depicted as a normalised and often essential paradig m that is used to show the gods’ dominance over lesser beings. Numerous accounts represent the gods as having transcended the boundaries of justice and morality by highlighting their exemption from prosecution for rape in contrast to mortal rapists, who cannot avoid punishment. Furthermore, aetiological-rape myths reveal that only the gods could bring about creation through rape, whether it be the birth of divineRead MoreThe Influence Of Mannerism And Baroque Era858 Words   |  4 PagesReason why it’s successful is because of the figures standing in the middle of the canvas, providing more empty areas. Rape of Europa proves Titian’s understanding of colors from the shift of mannerism to baroque despite the elongated bodies still presented in 1560. The technique he used constant layering to the pigments to make the color solid and bright. In the painting is Europa being dragged to the sea by Zeus disguised as a white bull while people on shore are chasing after her. Unlike The SacrificeRead MoreComparing The Metamorphoses Of Ovid And Homer Essay1200 Words   |  5 Pagesreaders are introduced to Europa; a beautiful princess and daughter of the great king, Agenor. Being so beautiful, it was no coincidence that she caught the eye of Jupiter. In order for Jupiter to get closer to Europa, he transformed himself into a pearly white calf. Being tantalized by the one of a kind and beautiful calf, Europa climbed aboard its back and was carried away across the ocean to Crete. This is a clear example of desire because after stealing away Europa Jupiter rapes her. Also, this wasRead MoreArtemis, By The Greek And Diana1589 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Gorgon Medusa to conceive Chrysaor and Pegasus, the flying horse. The rape of Aethra by Poseidon resulted in the birth of Theseus; and he turned Caeneus into a man, at her request, after raping her. Another rape involved Amymone when she tried to escape from a satyr and Poseidon saved her. Other offspring of Poseidon include: Eumolpus, the Giant Sinis, Polyphemus, Orion, King Amycus, Proteus, Agenor and Belus from Europa, Pelias, and the King of Egypt, Busiris.† (Sellers) Poseidon raped a girlRead MoreAttitude And Death Of Ancient Greece1044 Words   |  5 Pagesmap of the Underworld showing the rivers and destinations for the souls. Having gotten past the Cerberus, who will be friendly unless a shade tries to escape, the soul would then be taken to the the fields of Minos. Minos was the son of Zeus and Europa and before his death sent 14 children as sacrifices to the Minotaur each year. He would sit in a Gigantic Urn and judge whether a soul was fit for punishment or to be taken to either the Fields of Asphodel or to Elysium with the help of Aeacus andRead MoreThe Head of Poseidon1339 Words   |  6 PagesGorgon Medusa to give birth to Chrysaor and Pegasus, the flying horse. The rape of Aethra by Poseidon stemmed in the delivery of Theseus; and he changed Caeneus into a man, at her request, after raping her. Another rape involved Amymone when she tried to escape from a satyr and Poseidon rescued her. Other descendants of Poseidon include: Eumolpus, the Giant Sinis, Polyphemus, Orion, King Amycus, Proteus, Agenor and Belus from Europa, Pelias, and the King of Egypt, Busiris. One of the most disreputableRead More Greek Mythology And The Mythology1154 Words   |  5 Pagesearly age when the two groups could mingle together more freely then they did later in time. These tales were later divided into two thematic groups of tales of love, and the tale of punishment. Tale of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal women by a male god, resulting in a heroic offspring. The second type in the tales of punishment which involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact. The stories both generally suggest that relationships betweenRead MoreIvan the Terrible Essay956 Words   |  4 Pageswould no longer be ruled by anyone, but it was to late for Ivans mental peace. Just as Ivans boyhood was spilt in two, so would his adulthood. Ivan had already become the corrupted reckless noble that he so hated, he gloried in violence, cruelty, rape, and death. But on the other side Ivan was, a avowed scholar; such a devoted Christian that he gained callouses on his forehead from penance and prayer. In 1547 Ivan was crowned Tsar of all Tsars. It was also time for Ivan to take a wifeRead MoreThe Renaissance Period And Artemisia Gentileschi Of The Baroque Period2173 Words   |  9 Pagesstyle until he found that her talents surpassed his own. He then hired Agostino Tassi to take over her training and to teach her perspective in 1611. However, Tassi raped Artemisia, falsely promising to marry her afterward. Orazio sued Tassi for the rape of Artemisia and the theft of several pictures. The trial lasted for five months, and Artemisia had to endure the thumb screw, a lie detector test of the time. Tassi was found guilty and spent eight months in prison before being released. Even though

Logistic Free Essays

1. Consider the supply chain for a domestic automobile. a. We will write a custom essay sample on Logistic or any similar topic only for you Order Now What are the components of the supply chain for the automobile? b. What are the different firms involved in the supply chain? c. What are the objectives of these firms? d. Provide examples of conflicting objectives in this supply chain. e. What are the risks that rare or unexpected events pose to this supply chain? a. b. c. d. e. Pick any car model manufactured by a domestic auto maker. For example, consider the 2002 Ford Thunderbird. a. The supply chain for a car typically includes the following components:: 1. Suppliers for raw materials 2. Suppliers for parts and subsystems 3. Automobile manufacturer (Ford, in the example). Within a company, there are also different departments, which constitute the internal supply chain: i. Purchasing and material handling ii. Manufacturing iii. Marketing, etc. 4. Transportation providers 5. Automobile dealers b. Many firms are involved in the supply chain. 1. Raw material suppliers. For instance, suppliers for steel, rubber, plastics, etc. 2. Parts suppliers. For instance, suppliers for engines, steering wheels, seats, and electronic components, etc. 3. Automobile manufacturer. For instance, Ford. 4. Transportation providers. For instance, shippers, trucking companies, railroads, etc. 5. Automobile dealers. For instance, Hayward Ford. c. All companies involved in the supply chain want to maximize their respective profits by increasing revenue and decreasing cost. However, companies may employ different strategies in order to achieve this goal. Some of them focus on customer satisfaction and quick delivery, while others may be more concerned about minimizing inventory holding costs. d. In general, different parts of the supply chain have objectives that are not aligned with each other. 1. Purchasing: Stable order quantities, flexible delivery lead times and little variation in mix. 2. Manufacturing: Long production runs, high quality, high productivity and low production costs. 3. Warehousing: Low inventory, reduced transportation costs and quick replenishment capability. 4. Customers: Short order lead times, a large variety of products and low prices. e. Typically, the automobile dealer would like to offer a variety of car colors and configurations to accommodate different customer preferences, and meanwhile have a short delivery lead time from the manufacturer. However, in order to maximize the length of production runs, and utilize resources more efficiently, the manufacturer would like to aggregate orders from different dealers and offer less variety in car configurations. This is a clear example of conflicting marketing and manufacturing goals. ———————– 2. Consider a consumer mortgage offered by a bank. a. What are the components of the supply chain for the mortgage? . Is there more than one firm involved in the supply chain? What are the objectives of the firm or firms? c. What are the similarities between product and service supply chains? What are the differences? a. b. c. a. The supply chain for a consumer mortgage offered by a bank may involve various components. 1. Marketing companies that handle solicitation to potential customers. 2. Credit reporting agencies that evaluate potential customers. 3. The bank that extends the mortgage loans. 4. Mortgage brokers through which the loans are distributed. . The marketing companies strive to increase the response rate from homebuyers in order to maximize their returns. Banks aim at a customer portfolio with a relatively low risk, healthy flow of payments and low average loan maturity date. The brokers would like to maximize their sales commissions. c. Similar to product supply chains, the objective of a service supply chain is to provide what is needed (in this case, a particular type of service, rather than a physical product) at the right location, at the right time, and in a form that conforms to customer requirements while minimizing system wide costs. However, there are a number of differences between the two types of supply chains. For instance: 1. In a product supply chain, there is both a flow of information and physical products. In a service supply chain, it is primarily information. 2. Contrary to a service supply chain, transportation and inventory are major cost components in a product supply chain. 3. Services typically cannot be held in inventory, so matching capacity with demand is frequently more important in a service supply chain. 4. In a service supply chain, the (explicit) cost of information is higher than in a product supply chain. Note that in the mortgage example above, the bank has to compensate the credit reporting agency for each credit report it obtains. ——————————————————- 3. What is an example of a supply chain that has evolved over time? Many supply chains evolve over time. For example, consider a memory chip supply chain. Production strategies may change during different stages of the product life cycle. When a new memory chip is introduced, price is high, yield is low, and production capacity is tight, and the availability of the product is important. Consequently, production is usually done at plants close to markets, and the management focuses on increasing yield, reducing the number of production disruptions, and fully utilizing capacity. When the product matures, however, its price drops and demand is stabilized for a period of time, so minimizing production cost moves to center stage. To reduce costs, production may be outsourced to overseas foundries, where labor and materials are much cheaper. 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The Conditions of Hindu and Islamic Women in Medieval India

Introduction The status or condition of women in India has undergone a lot of transformation over time. Before the medieval age, there was the Vedic period, period of the epics, and period of Jainism and Buddhism among others. To fully explore the condition of Hindu women in the medieval age, it is necessary to understand their status during the previous age in order to know whether or not they were more constrained.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Conditions of Hindu and Islamic Women in Medieval India specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hindu Women in Ancient India In the Vedic Period for example, women were more liberal: they could take part in most activities of religion, they could choose marriage partners, the girls could participate in education etc (Module-V 3). There was almost some sense of equality between both genders at this time. The wives of Mahabharata and Ramayana, Sita and Draupadi respectively , are the other two greatly emulated women in India (Module-V 3). Jainism and Buddhism brought significant constraints with it. For instance: confinement of women, domination of the male’s in home responsibility and now family lineage was specifically traced to them, education for girls decreased, marriage age was lowered (Module-V 4). The age of Dharmashastras saw the exclusion of women in the social circles, the idea that they were inferior became much more popular and codes of conduct were introduced for women which led to severe punishment if any was broken (Module-V 5). During these periods, women’s freedom was almost negligible. With the coming of the Islam, some presumed there would be some sort of relief in vain. Women in Medieval India This period is hugely associated with the introduction of Islam in India (Module-V 6). The major effect that was felt widely was the introduction of the â€Å"purdah† (Notes 1). Other effects in summary include: early mar riage of the girls, introduction of the dowry system, sati (which refers to self-immolation of a widow), and the purdah also referring to â€Å"remaining indoors† (NATRSS 1). Similarities of Hindu and Muslim Women in Medieval India The political involvement of both Hindu and Muslim women is a common feature they shared in the medieval period. Examples of Muslim women who took leadership roles include: Raziyyah, who although was assassinated, â€Å"she appeared in public without a veil and wore a man’s robe†, Nur Jahan; she was a controversial yet powerful image, who acted on behalf of her husband (Notes 6). As for Hindu women, Queen Rudrama Devi and Queen Rani Lakshmi are some examples (Notes 7). Another similarity lies in purdah. Purdah had two meanings to both women: one was wearing of veils as attires and two â€Å"physical seclusion in a house† (Notes 2). The Hindu adapted this culture with the sole purpose of wanting to protect their women from the M uslim men who had their women covered (Notes 1).Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the physical seclusions women got engaged in different activities which included: â€Å"sexual relationships, reproduction of the family, socialization of children and daughters-in-law and management of the household† (Notes 3). It was an avenue for them to â€Å"exercise power† and for the Muslim women especially would also contribute ideas in making policies (Notes 4). Religious practices offer another common ground for the Hindu and Muslim women. The Hindu women found solace in the â€Å"Bhakti† movement also referred to as â€Å"devotional Hinduism† (Notes 9). Lord Krishna emphasised â€Å"the approach to God through pure love† (Notes 9). The Muslim women on the other hand had their own movement called â€Å"Sufism†- which emphasised â€Å"the need for direct union with God† (Notes 11). Women from both divides would make pilgrimages to â€Å"dargahs† to get help concerning â€Å"infertility or family disputes† (Notes 12). Differences of Hindu and Muslim Women in Medieval India One of the major differences was in the physical seclusion. Hindu – The women had to keep their physical distance from the males, those they were related to or not i.e. fathers-in-law, older brothers-in-law. They were also secluded from older females. This practice was more common to the higher class in the society, but in the medieval period, it was extended even to the loser classes (Module-V 6). Muslim: Physical distance was maintained towards the â€Å"non-related males† (Notes 2). Another difference was concerning the marriage of widows. Muslim did not oppose the marriage of widows or look down on them. This was clearly illustrated by Emperor Jahangir who married Nur Jahan, who was also his â€Å"political adviser† (Not es 5). Hindu: The widow would even self-immolate on their husband’s pyre a practice which was referred to as sati (NASTRR 1). Divorce was also a distinguishing factor between the two groups. Muslim: The women could also divorce their husbands in accordance with the â€Å"Sharia law† (Module-V 7). Hindu: Only the man is allowed to divorce their wife. Conclusion The Hindu women are said to have undergone even worse treatment during the medieval time. The only positive aspect which was associated with the way the Indians women were treated was that they were allowed to participate in politics. However, in general the Indian women were generally secluded and this made even their participation in political affairs difficult.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Conditions of Hindu and Islamic Women in Medieval India specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Works Cited Module-V. Status of Women in Indian Society. Course, n.d. Web. NATRSS. National Academy for Training and Research in Social Security. Status of Women in India, n.d. Web. Notes. Spread of Islam in South Asia, 1000-1700. Class Notes, n.d. Print. This essay on The Conditions of Hindu and Islamic Women in Medieval India was written and submitted by user Vertigo to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Movies and the Art of Cinematography essays

Movies and the Art of Cinematography essays Around the world, at any instant, millions of people are watching movies. They watch mainstream entertainment, serious art films, documentaries, cartoons, experimental films, educational shorts. They sit in air-conditioned theaters, in village squares, in art museums, in college classrooms, or in their homes before a television screen. Nobody needs too be convinced that film is one of the centurys most influential media. Not only can you recall your most exiting or tearful moments at the movies, you can also probably remember moments in ordinary life when you tried to be as graceful, as selfless, as tough, or as compassionate as those larger-than-life figures on the screen.. the way we dress and cut our hair, the way we talk and act, the things we believe or doubt all these aspects of our lives are shaped by films. Films also provide us with powerful aesthetic experiences, insights into cultures, and glimpses of new ways of thinking. I am very fond of cinema. That is why I will try to understand this amazing, beautiful world of cinematography. It would be not easy, I think, because cinema includes a great amount of knowledge in different spheres. While researching the theme of my essay, I have understood that film history includes more than just films. By studying how films were made and received, I discover the range of options available to filmmakers and film viewers by studying the social and cultural influences on films, I come to understand better the ways in which films may bear the traces of the issues in thee history of politics, of culture, and of the arts. Researchers are fond of saying that there is no film history, only film histories. But I think that film history is more aptly thought of as a set of film histories because research into film history involves asking a series of questions and searching for evidence in order to answer them in the course of an argument. I have decided to concentr...

7 Top Tips on Writing the Time

7 Top Tips on Writing the Time 7 Top Tips on Writing the Time As anyone who has turned up for a midday meeting at midnight will tell you, clarity is vital when writing the time of day. But there are many ways to write the time, and the best approach isn’t always obvious. So to help out, we’ve prepared this guide to putting the time down on paper. 1. Words or Numerals? You can write the time of day using either words or numerals. If you are using numerals, you would usually include both hours and minutes, although you can omit the minutes in less formal writing. For instance, all the following would be acceptable: She gets up at six in the morning every day. She gets up at 6:00 in the morning every day. She gets up at 6 o’clock in the morning every day. As a rule, though, you would only write out the time as words when: It is part of a full sentence, particularly in descriptive or literary writing. Using a 12-hour clock (never with a 24-hour clock). Youre referring to an approximate or round time (e.g., saying â€Å"ten thirty† is fine, but you would not usually write â€Å"twenty-four minutes after eight†). In most other cases, numerals are the clearer option for writing the time, especially in scientific and technical writing, where precision is vital. 2. AM and PM The abbreviations AM and PM can be used when writing the time as numerals. Each applies to a different time of day: AM is short for ante meridiem, meaning â€Å"before noon.† PM is short for post meridiem, meaning â€Å"after noon.† As such, we use AM and PM to indicate the time of day when we are using a 12-hour clock. We can see how this works more clearly if we write out various times of day in both 12-hour and 24-hour formats: Time 12-Hour Clock 24-Hour Clock Midnight 12:00 AM 00:00 Three in the morning 03:00 AM 03:00 Half past eight in the morning 08:30 AM 08:30 Midday 12:00 PM 12:00 Three in the afternoon 03:00 PM 15:00 Half past eight in the evening 08:30 PM 20:30 You can see here that we need AM and PM with the twelve-hour clock for clarity. Without them, we wouldn’t be able to tell the difference between, e.g., midday and midnight. Likewise, though, you do not need to include AM or PM with a 24-hour time because it is already clear. There are also several ways to write AM and PM, including: ALL CAPS, small caps, or lower case (e.g., 12 AM, 12 AM, or 12 am) With or without periods between the letters (e.g., 8 PM or 8 P.M.) With or without a space after the number (e.g., 1 AM or 1AM) Consistency is key here, so make sure to apply one style throughout your document. You may also want to check your style guide if you have one, as some organizations will have their own rules for how to write AM and PM. 3. When to Use O’clock You’ll have noticed we use â€Å"o’clock† in one of the examples above. This term means â€Å"of the clock,† so we can use it to show that a number refers to a time. However, you should only use â€Å"o’clock† with exact hours: It is precisely 5 o’clock. âÅ"” I’m leaving at seven o’clock. âÅ"” It arrived at 7:34 o’clock. âÅ"Ëœ The gig starts at half past seven o’clock. âÅ"Ëœ We’ll save a discussion of when wine o’clock is for another blog post. 4. Past, After, Till, and To When writing the time as words, use â€Å"after,† â€Å"past,† and â€Å"to† for intervals between hours. You can combine these terms with either numbers or the words â€Å"half† and â€Å"quarter† depending on the time in question: Use after or past for intervals up to half an hour past the hour. Use to for any interval after the half hour up to the hour. Use half past to indicate 30 minutes past the hour. Use quarter past  or  quarter after for 15 minutes after the hour. Use quarter to for 15 minutes up to the hour. For example, we would use the above accordingly in the following times: 7:05 → Five after seven 7:15 → Quarter past seven 7:30 → Half past seven 7:45 → Quarter to eight 7:55 → Five to eight Keep in mind that using after for times is only standard in American English. In other English dialects, past is far more common. 5. Punctuating the Time When writing the time as numerals, you can use either a colon or a full stop between the hour and the minutes. In some cases, such as in the military, you can even write out a 24-hour time without any punctuation. For instance, the following are all acceptable ways of punctuating a time: We need to leave by 6:45 pm at the latest. âÅ"” We need to leave by 6.45 pm at the latest. âÅ"” We need to leave by 1845 at the latest. âÅ"” The colon is the most common option here, but it is a matter of preference. Unless you’re in the military, in which case we suggest sticking to protocol. 6. Time Zones For the contiguous states in the USA, we have four standard time zones: Pacific Time (PT) [UTC-08:00] Mountain Time (MT) [UTC-07:00] Central Time (CT) [UTC-06:00] Eastern Time (ET) [UTC-5:00] We also have regional time zones for Alaska, Hawaii, and 5 US dependencies, plus daylight saving time in some places during the warmer months of the year. And people in other countries use different time zones entirely! Basically, we’re saying geography can make time complicated. This is why we sometimes include a time zone when writing the time. The initials UTC in the examples above, for instance, stand for Universal Time Coordinated. We can use this to compare times in different places. So, â€Å"UTC-8:00† means that Pacific Time is 8 hours behind UTC. And since we know that Pacific Time is 8 hours behind UTC and Eastern Time is 5 hours behind UTC, we can work out that ET is 3 hours ahead of PT. In other words, by including a time zone when we write a time, we can help people in other places â€Å"translate† it into their own time zone. This is especially important if you are writing for an international audience, since not everyone will be in the same time zone. You therefore need to include a set of time zone initials so your reader can calculate the equivalent time wherever they are. For example, if we were making an announcement for an international audience, we might say: The live broadcast will begin at 9:00 pm UTC. Someone in Bolivia could then look up the difference between UTC and BOT (Bolivia Time) and know the broadcast begins at 5:00 pm where they are. 7. Avoiding Redundancy when Writing the Time In writing, redundancy means using a word unnecessarily. We mentioned above, for example, that you do not need to use AM or PM with 24-hour times because we already know whether a time is the morning or afternoon/evening when using a 24-hour clock. Other cases of temporal redundancy you may want to avoid include: Using â€Å"in the morning,† â€Å"in the afternoon,† etc., alongside AM/PM. Combining â€Å"in the morning,† â€Å"in the afternoon,† etc., with a 24-hour time. Using â€Å"midday,† â€Å"noon,† or â€Å"midnight† alongside a time in numbers. We’ll end this post with a few examples of redundancies so you know what to watch out for. Check out the table below, good luck writing the time, and let us know if you need any help proofreading your work. Redundancy Correction The event ends at 17:00 PM. The event ends at 17:00. The event ends at 5:00 PM. We leave at 6AM in the morning. We leave at 6AM. We leave at 6:00 in the morning. He went to bed at 23:00 at night. He went to bed at 23:00. He went to bed at 11:00 at night. I’ll see you at twelve noon. I’ll see you at twelve. I’ll see you at noon. (N.B. ‘Noon’ is the better correction here, since ‘twelve’ by itself could be either midday or midnight.)

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Proposal Case Study

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Proposal - Case Study Example A description of Brain Freeze’s existing â€Å"legacy† information systems Brain freeze ltd, it still relies on information systems that are not current and not able to accommodate the growth rate of the company. The company relies on an outdated financial accounting system known as solution 7. Solution 7 financial accounting system does not have a manufacturing module and does not support sales and marketing of the products. BrainFreeze Pty Ltd also uses excel spread sheets to record the warehouse inventories and track the distributions channels and record the different transactions. The company also relies on manual methods for the production and packaging operations. The tracking of data required for production is done using the available clipboards. The tracking of raw materials is facilitated by a pear tree module that is not adequately reliable as payments are made through the accounting system. Business processes One of the most common business processes at BrainFreeze Pty Ltd is the order management process where the customer’s order the products on phone. This process involves the set of actions that BrainFreeze Pty Ltd takes to ensure that they deliver the goods ordered by the customer. Some of the main steps include processing the order, production of the goods and delivery of the goods to the client. The production of the goods is done in case they are not available in the companies’ warehouse or if the customer makes the order according to their own preferences. Additionally to ensure customer satisfaction, the management of the orders is closely related to the Customer Relationship Management. The parties involved in the order management process include; the customer (orders the products on phone), the manufacturer (BrainFreeze Pty) and the shipping service process. Below is a flow chart for the ordering process; Another common business process at BrainFreeze Pty Ltd is t he accounting process that involves the recording of all sequential activities of how cash is received and how it is paid out. The accounting process is done through recording of various financial statements such as journals, ledgers and trial balance. Below is a flow chart for the current accounting process; The human resource management process is also common at BrainFreeze Pty Ltd. The human resource department in the organization is responsible for recruitment of new staff, management of the staff within the organization and providing direction for the staff members. The human resource management as a business process involves both the human resources department and the management. The human resource management process is also concerned with evaluating the staff’s performance, qualifications and their safety among others. This process also involves moving away the traditional staff members. The main goal of human resource management at BrainFreeze Pty Ltd is to enhance st rategic utilization of the staff members to influence the business in as beneficial way. Below is a flow chart for the human resource management process of staff hiring; How the proposed ERP streamlines the business processes This system is likely to eliminate most tedious tasks that are considered to be time consuming; therefore, the management of BrainFreeze Pty Ltd becomes more effective. Some of the benefits of the use of the modern improved systems include easier control over the different processes, clearer monitoring of operations, streamlining the supply chains and more efficient storage and retrieval of information. The system will give the managers a better view of the operation of the organization by easily accessing all the

The demographic imbalance in the UAE and Security Threats Research Paper

The demographic imbalance in the UAE and Security Threats - Research Paper Example The paper first looks at the demographic data with regard to nationalities, then proceeds to analyse how the demographic imbalance threatens local community identity, social structure, economic and political future of the UAE. Demographic data with regard to nationalities and gender Since 1975, the UAE population composition has experienced rapid transitions. The population has grown more than 10 times over this period with the greatest population growth being that of foreign nationals (Al-Suwaidi, 2011). At 12% of the total population (Al-Khouri, 2010), the number of nationals is extremely low compared to that of expatriates, and certain nationalities are predominant within the demographic structure. Analysing the most recent estimated data for 2010 over a five year period, UAE population was estimated to be 8.5 million in 2010 of which only 950,000 were national citizens while 7.3 million were accounted for by non national residents. In 2005, the nationals were estimated to be around 818,000, which implies that the national population growth was at a 3% growth rate. On the other hand, the foreign nationals who were 3.3 million in 2005, more than doubled over the five year period to 7.3 million (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012; UAE Defence & Security Report , 2011). Table 1: UAE Population data 2005-2010 Â   2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 UAE Nationals 0.82 million 0.85 million 0.88 million 0.9 million 0.93 million 0.95 million Foreign Nationals 3.3 million 4.2 million 5.3 million 7.17 million 7.2 million 7.3 million Figure 1: UAE Citizens versus Foreign citizens Figure 2: Population growth trends 2005-2010; UAE nationals versus foreign nationals (data in millions) It has been predicted that if appropriate correctional measures and policies are not taken to address the trend effectively, then UAE national population is further projected to fall relative to the foreign nationals, grossly impacting the demographic imbalance (Al-Khouri, 2010). With the Economist Intelligence unit (EIU, 2010) having forecasted that the population in the Gulf region will be growing by a third over the next eight years till 2020, this poses a serious challenge to the development of the region in the future and requires strong policies to address the imbalances. Analy sing the population composition based on nationalities as presented by Randeree (2009), it can be noted that certain foreign nationals are more predominant than others. The leading nationals are Indians at approximately 36.5% of the population, while the Arabs from other regions and Pakistani nationals follow at 12.7% each. UAE also exhibits a unique structure in its demography with respect to gender - unlike most countries, Emirati male population exceeds the female population, thus by 2010 population estimates there were 479,109 males, while females stood at 468,888 (Randeree, 2012; National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). This implies that ratio of male to female is 1.02 males for every female. The Emirati male to female ratio has been

Free Essay on The Catcher in the Rye :: Catcher Rye Essays

Free Essay on The Catcher in the Rye      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The catcher in the rye is a work of fiction and a   tragic-comedy. I came to choose it because I heard it is about a boy who is around my age.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In this book, the main character, Holden Caulfield, tells us a story about what happened during his Christmas vacation. Holden is a sixteen-year-old boy who has flunked out of a private prep school. Because he is afraid that his parents would find out this fact, he goes to a hotel in New York City instead of going home after he leaves school for Christmas vacation. In New York, many things happen to him within a few days. For example, he goes to the hotel bar and meets three women after he first arrives there. The women go away soon after he fails to talk with them, and Holden feels lonely and depressed. He goes to another bar to find someone to spend some time with, but he fails to find anyone to talk to and comes back to the hotel feeling more depressed. In the hotel, he meets a prostitute, but he sends her back without having sex because he feels depressed and sorry for her. He was further disappointed   when she tries to rob him of his money even though he tries to be nice to her. In the next morning, he has a date with an old girl friend, and asks her to flee from this corrupt world and live in the woods with him. However, she tells him he is crazy and then leaves him. Holden meets some more people later, but they also cannot solve his problems, and he feels more and more depressed and lonely. He finally decides to run away and live as a deaf-mute who will not need to communicate with anyone. Before leaving, he goes to say good-bye to his little sister, Pheobe, who he admires the most. While talking and playing with her, Holden changes his mind and decides to rejoin his family and because he realizes there are many things that he cannot solve by himself.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The theme of this novel is how innocence is corrupted by society. Holden thinks everybody who is grown up is a phony because their behavior and advice are all false. The title of

Quality Control and Business

Description of business The I-TEC Corporation is runned as a partnership of fifteen people. The numbers are important to guide the business to the right path of success. Ideas from each partner contribute to the growth of the business to new heights.The objective of the business is to provide low cost computers. It was started to address the problems that the country was facing with the â€Å"up to date† technology. If a country doesn’t have access to computers, the citizens will not be able to know what is going on in foreign countries and will be classed as â€Å"stone age†. ————————————————- Location: The business is located in Cul-de-sac which is not too far from the capitals town. It is an ideal spot because of its accessibility to transportation.Vehicles can both leave and enter the capital without the extra cost. It is also close to the docks whe re the business imports different parts for the manufacturing of the computers. It is also a government incentive, meaning the land was cheaper if the business had to purchase its own land. The type of labor needed is -professional -skilled -semi-skilled -unskilled Professional Management (1 for each sector of management)- to assist with the initial stability of the business also to check on production and marketing aspects. Skilled Workers, It technicians, inspectors, etc(5 in each department). to allow the business to be successful and to ensure that the work is being done right. Semi-skilled Drivers and transportation staff (about 12 drivers) – to ensure that products and raw material is transported in or out of the business safely. Unskilled Cleaning staff (10 to be able to cover that entire factory) – to ensure that the business is clean and a healthy environment. Sources of fixed and working capital Fixed capital started with a loan from the bank. This sum of mon ey enabled the business to cover up cost of the foundation and structure of the building, transportation and various machinery.Working capital was funded by the partner’s personal expenditure after saving money over the years and a small contribution by the bank ————————————————- As the entrepreneur I am the one with idea and goal to start off the business. Therefore I am the one how take serious accountability and inherits all the risks of the business. ROLES OF BEING THE ENTREPRENEUR -responsibility of taking the risks of owning a business -responsibility to ensure that the business is profitable ————————————————- all liabilities are directed straight to his funds ———————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Type of production The business has a domestic range of production. Meaning that the business presently sells to the market available in the country it is situated in. after a few years, the business hopes to grow into an exporting production era, when we will sell to other countries around the world. Level of production The company has a secondary level of production. It produces products from their raw material state and then sells it to the market.Mainly the business focuses on the production of the product. In the secondary level of production, the business imports parts that are already manufactured from other companies and puts them together. ————————————————- Quality control measures Inspectors from the Bureau of Standards check the quality of products and equipment in the business. They certify that each product is of a certai n standard for the country. There are also business inspectors to ensure that the business keeps up with the quality expected.They ensure that the best type of machinery and products are bought from the top manufacturers. The business inspectors also look at products at each stage of production to provide perfect quality. Use of technology In the aspect of technology the business uses it to its advantage. Computers, security cameras, machinery controls are used on a daily basis in the company. Technology is simply needed to make the business run smother and more effective. For example, the machinery is used to make the work load on the business’ human recourses much easier.The involvement with the World Wide Web also influences the progress of the business. Linkages The business mainly focuses on its forward linkages, which is people that the business sells to. The service sector, banking, education, financial, health, helps the business grow in many ways. A forward linkage b enefits the business because it provides a steady market to sell products to the customers. ————————————————- Potential Growth Over a period of time, the business would be hoping to improve both internal and externally. INTERNALThe increase of working staff and increase in production. Develop on the products made and provide more variety of the items sold. Therefore the income earned by the business will increase. EXTERNAL The movement of location or expansion of the business. Opening more branches both locally and regionally. Government regulations Employment regulation-The business must have a regulation to permit employment to others. If not when the business employs people it would be illegal. Taxation- Taxation must be followed by all businesses to support the government to improve. This cooperation has no exception.Import and Export license- The business needs to be certified to export and import to other countries. Ethical issues Production – the business will have to have an environment friendly production plant where the emissions from the manufacturing plant will be reduced drastically. The company follows the theme less steam go green be clean. Disposal – the equipment that is not being used and the waste material is properly disposed by the company’s personal sanitation officers. Worker treatment – employees are treated with a family-like environment where each employee would feel like him or her is in a comfortable job.

Overcrowded Prisons and the War on Drugs - 1178 Words

The War on Drugs One must wonder if the war on drugs helps or hinders our American Criminal Justice System when you look at the overwhelming impact it has had on crowding issues within our prisons. At the present time there are over 1.5 million people in prison, 59.6 % for drug offenses alone. The war on drugs started over 100 years ago in San Francisco, California when the first law against drugs was enacted to stop the smoking of opium. In all actuality, this law was against the Chinese people living in the U.S., because they were known for smoking of the opium as a custom. The government feared that opium induced Chinese men would try to lure white women to them. The next drug that was considered illegal was cocaine.†¦show more content†¦In fact, while the sale of Nicotine requires your age to be 18 and above, there is no age on acquiring or purchasing Caffeine. Statistics also show that while Nicotine kills over 390,000 individuals a year, Marijuana kills 0. (Scha ffer, n.d.) Proposal 2 Strike down the 3 Strike Rule: The 3 strike rule is a great rule when it comes to violent offenders that just do not learn the first or second time around, but to use this rule for petty thefts and drug offenses is not only overcrowding our prisons, but not teaching the offenders anything. Not only is the 3 Strikes Rule ineffective, it becomes even more so when you consider that most of the drug offenses in this country are for recreational drugs such as marijuana. According to a drug fact sheet from the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, there have been 10 million people arrested since 1965 for the use of marijuana. The fact sheet goes on to state that 80% of all prisoners in America are doing time for drug related offenses. By doingShow MoreRelatedPrison Overcrowding in California905 Words   |  4 PagesPrison Overcrowding in California Jeffrey Shaw CJA/564 Josette Ford May 6, 2013 The California prisons have been crowded for decades. This cannot continue to go on. One of the reasons that the prisons are overcrowded is because of the types and lengths of sentences. Other reasons why the prisons are overcrowded is because many of the prisoners are there on non-violent crimes. Also many of the sentences are for smaller crimes. The one recent event that is dealing with this problem is releaseRead MoreThe Effects of Overcrowded Conditions in US Prisons1564 Words   |  6 PagesDue to budget crises in states across the United States of America, state governments must cut funding to their punishment facilities causing overcrowding in prisons to increase every day. Overcrowded prisons pose a potential breeding ground for crime as hundreds of inmates are squeezed into small accommodations. Thousands of low-level offenders receive jail sentences each day, these criminals make up about a third of the inmates in the United States. In the words of Republican Governor M itch DanielsRead MoreEffects Of Overcrowded Prisons1218 Words   |  5 Pagesin the overgrown prisons throughout the country. Over 2.4 million people call a state prison, federal prison, or local jail their home ( Prison Overcrowding). Not only are citizens frightened about the over populated prisons, but also the prisoners who have to live there for a period of time. Overcrowded prisons produce an amount of stress and physical problems to the prisoner ( When Prison). Overcrowding restricts access to dining halls, laundry rooms, and bathrooms (When Prison). Also some inmatesRead MorePrison Overcrowding And Its Effects On The United States Essay1605 Words   |  7 PagesPer Derek Gilna’s report on Increase in Federal Prison Population, Overcrowding, prisons have become overpopulated throughout a five-year span from 2006 to 2011 (Gilna, page 48). Prison overcrowding has become a plague in the United States for some time now. The US Bureau of Justice Statistics shows more than two-million adults are incarcerated in US federal and state prisons. There are many reasons that prisons are becoming overpopul ated but not such a certain cause. To fix the problem, attentionRead MoreEssay about Crime in Latin America1197 Words   |  5 PagesPrisons for a long time have been a gateway to try to save society, when the only thing that it’s doing is hurting the social order because it’s creating more problems that are not being treated from the beginning. Crime has become a big problem during these hard times with the poor economy, but it has especially affected Latin America because of all the problems that overcrowded prisons have brought forward. In Latin America Brazil and Mexico are the two largest countries that have been affectedRead MorePros And Cons Of War On Drugs889 Words   |  4 PagesWar on Drugs Introduction In 1971, President Nixon created the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 commonly known as the War on Drugs. The war on drugs was implemented to combat production, distribution, and consumption of illegal drugs (Olaya Angel, 2017). In 2007, law enforcement officers made approximately two million drug arrests in the United States (Potter, 2014). Supporters state that the war on drugs was successful because it lowered some drug users in the UnitedRead MoreOvercrowding And Its Effects On The United States Prison System1178 Words   |  5 Pages Overcrowding prisons are an issue that has been influencing the United States prison population for decades, however what is the true significance of overcrowding. As indicated by Jeff Bleich (1989) â€Å"the term overcrowding is repetitive, since crowding already refers to a higher level of social density than is desired†. An overcrowded prison is a shocking condition that causes outrage and dissatisfaction among detainees (Haney, 2014). This condition is so undesirable that one can consider it as unconstitutionalRead MorePrison Overcrowding Crisis1317 Words   |  6 Pagesdetained or before a trial. A prison is built to house individuals for a long period of time. A jail is also known as a detention facility. A prison is known as a correctional facility or penitentiaries. Regardless of their name, the functions stay the same: to incarcerate and condemn criminals. America the land of the free has the highest incarceration rate. Furthermore, prisons are overcrowded due to th e â€Å"war on drugs† and the â€Å"three-strike† law. 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Realism in Theatre Essay - 1115 Words

The theatrical plays of â€Å"Angels in America† and â€Å"August: Osage County† both of the playwrights create a heart wrenching, tear jerking, and amazing work. Each character is developed to have its own sets of values, beliefs, and attitudes towards life and so there are no two characters alike. With each character having its own identity, it brings a sense of excitement and unpredictability in the plays. Tracy Letts the writer for â€Å"August: Osage County† establishes a sense of reality in his play by developing characters that everyone can relate too. His play is about family, the use of drugs, cancer, and suicide, subjects that people go through during their lifetime. Tony Kushner the playwright of â€Å"Angels in America† provides the same feeling†¦show more content†¦Even though the actors are well rehearsed when it comes to moving around the stage, they do it so effortlessly that it’s not a distraction for the audience. The move ment of actors may be considered a small thing, but it’s what make a play realistic or not. For a realistic play, the way the actors behave makes it seem they are not worried about the audience and being in their way. They talk, walk and act in a manner similar to that of our everyday behavior. In â€Å"August: Osage County† the actors are so believable that we as spectators forget it’s a play but rather seeing a glimpse into someone’s family. The realistic play of August: Osage County has everyone relating to someone or something during the course of the production. The topics of cancer, marijuana, molestation, drug addiction, and much more have audience members connecting to these characters in a way that a play has never done before. This play is considered a dark comedy and it has people experiencing both laughter and discomfort, sometimes simultaneously (Black Comedy). They address topics that are taboo in society, issues that theatrical plays never dream of dedicating an entire show to. Tracy Letts is a fierce writer who doesn’t back away from subject matters that are controversial and not the norm for a traditional play. The topic of prescription drug abuse engulfs the entireShow MoreRelatedRealism Theatre Essay1085 Words   |  5 PagesRealism is the movement toward representing reality as it is, in art. Realistic drama is an attempt to portray life on stage, a movement away from the conventional melodramas and sentimental comedies of the 1700s. It is expressed in theatre through the use of symbolism, character development, stage setting and storyline and is exemplified in plays such as Henrik Ibsens A Dolls House and Anton Chekhovs The Three Sisters. The arrival of realism was indeed good for theatre as it promoted greaterRead MoreBeckett And The Realism Theatre Of Henrik Ibsen2026 Words   |  9 PagesIn the very basic formats of theatre, including plot, form, and stage design, there are a large amount of differences between the absurd theatre of Samuel Beckett and the realism theatre of Henrik Ibsen; however, both these playwrights look to challenge their audience and the theatrical conventions and expectations of their time. Beckett challenges the idea of how language, time, and human existence are presented and perceived within a play; Ibsen challenges the conventional ideas of his time withRead More The Purpose of Theatre during the 20th Century1722 Words   |  7 Pages The Purpose of Theatre during the 20th Century Throughout centuries, theatre has been an enormous impact throughout society. During the 18th century, theatre had played a significant role to society because it emphasized Rationalism (The Age of Reason), which began to lead away from the limitations of Neoclassicism. Then in the 19th century, theatre was important because it introduced Melodrama or music drama to increasingly emphasize the emotions and personalitiesRead MoreHow Romanticism Has Diminish Throughout Popularity1587 Words   |  7 PagesIn contrast, extremist wanted to created closet drama which means that they wanted plays to be read instead of been acted. By 1840s romanticism was no longer a movement and even though it had effectively ended with neoclassicism it did not changed theatre completely. Romanticism established the idea of an artist as someone who was exceptional, sentimental, with great abilities, and inspired. It also established Art as something important just like a religion. 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Realists would argueRead MoreThe Decline of Classical Hollywood Films888 Words   |  4 Pagesinfluence by the work of the Italian Neo Realism and French New Wave this saw American film change drastically from its previous eras of filming techniques and saw a whole new era take over. Many changes happened following the 1948 lawsuit. Which saw the structure of American cinema completely change and brought a new era which defined the production of films and had a huge influence on the progression of film. With this, along with the influence of Italian neo realism and the French new wave, AmericanRead MoreRealism in Arms and the Man1527 Words   |  7 PagesRealism was a general movement in 19th-century theatre that developed a set of dramatic and theatrical conventions with the aim of bringing a greater fidelity of real life to texts and performances. It shared many stylis tic choices with naturalism, including a focus on everyday (middle-class) drama, colloquial speech, and mundane settings. Realism and naturalism diverge chiefly on the degree of choice that characters have: while naturalism believes in the overall strength of external forces overRead MoreRealism Can Be Made For Realistic Actors1183 Words   |  5 PagesHaving learnt all this, applications to realism can be made. One interpretation of the structure of Kabuki plays is to have a change in posture and physical behavior throughout the performance, showing progression in the character through their body, and after the character has endured all the trials of the story, the actor demonstrates the character’s ultimate control over themselves and their surroundings. The postures in Kabuki relate to the postures people utilize to reflect who they are. For

Dbq Essay Impacts Of New Imperialism - 3241 Words

AP World History DBQ Essay Directions: The following question is based on the accompanying Documents 1-8. (The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise.) Write your answer on the lined pages provided. This question is designed to test your ability to work with and understand historical documents. Write an essay that: Has a relevant thesis and supports that thesis with evidence from the documents. Uses all of the documents. Analyzes the documents by grouping them in as many appropriate ways as possible. Does not simply summarize the documents individually. Takes into account the sources of the documents and analyzes the authors’ points of view. Identifies and explains the need for at least one additional type of†¦show more content†¦The simple question is, what is the most useful way of employing it? All parties seem to be agreed on one point, that the dialects commonly spoken among the natives of this part of India contain neither literary or scientific information, and are, moreover so poor and rude that, until they are enriched from some other quarter, it will not be easy to translate any valuable work into them†¦ What, then shall the language [of education] by? One half of the Committee maintain that is should be the English. The other half strongly recommends the Arabic and Sanskrit. The whole question seems to me to be, which language is the best worth knowing? I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic—but I have done what I could to form a correct estimate of their value. I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and Sanskrit works. I have conversed both here and at home with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the Oriental learning at the valuation of the Orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia †¦ It is, I believe, no exaggeration to say, that all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanskrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used atShow MoreRelatedIslamic and Christianity Essay13431 Words   |  54 PagesVO L U M E FOR TEACHERS ONLY The University of the State of New York 2 2 OF DBQ REGENTS HIGH SCHOOL EXAMINATION GLOBAL HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY Tuesday, August 17, 2010 — 12:30 to 3:30 p.m., only RATING GUIDE FOR PART III A AND PART III B (DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION) Updated information regarding the rating of this examination may be posted on the New York State Education Department’s web site during the rating period. Visit the site http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/osa/ and select the link

Pakistan Study Free Essays

Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) By Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri CONTENTS Location and nature of Arab Tribes Location of the Arabs Arab Tribes Rulership and Princeship among the Arabs Rulership in Yemen Rulership in Heerah Rulership in Geographical Syria Rulership in Hijaz T he Reasons of this war have been illustrated in three versions Rulership in Pan-Arabia The political situation Religions of the Arabs The Religious situation Aspects of Pre-Islamic Arabian Society Social life of the Arabs The Economic Situation The Lineage and Family of Muhammad (Peace be upon him) The prophetic Family Muhammad’s Birth and Forty years prior Prophethood His Birth B abyhood B ack to his passionate Mother To His compassionate Grandfather Bahira, the Monk The Sacrilegious wars Al-Fudoul confederacy Muhammad’s Early Job His Marriage to Khadijah Rebuilding Al-Ka‘bah and the Arbitration Issue A Rapid Review of Muhammad’s Biography before commissioning of the Prophethood In the Shade of the Message and Prophethood In the Cave of Hira’ Gabriel brings down the Revelation Interruption of Revelation Once more, Gabriel brings Allah’s Revelation S ome details pertinent to the successive stages of Revelation Proclaiming Allah, the All-High; and the Immediate Constituents Phases and stages of the call The First Stage Strife in the Way of the Call Three years of Secret Call The Early Converts As-Salat (the Prayer) T he Quraishites learn about the Call The Second Phase, Open Preaching First Revelation regarding the Preaching Calling the Closest Kinspeople On Mount As -Safa Shouting the Truth and the Polytheists’ Reaction An Advisory Council to debar Pilgrims from Muhammad’s Call Attempts made to check the Onward March of Islam Persecutions The House of Al-Arqum The First Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) Quraish’s Machination against the Emigrants Once more Quraish approaches Abu Talib The Tyrants’ Decision to kill the Prophet (Peace be upon him) The Conversion of Hamzah bin ‘Abdul-Muttalib The Conversion of ‘Umar bin Al-Khattab Q uraish’s Representative negotiates with the Messenge r of Allah (Peace be upon him) Abu Talib assmbles Bani Hashim and Bani Al-Muttalib General Social Boycott A Pact of Injustice and Aggression The Final Phase of the Diplomacy of Negotiation The Year of Grief Abu Talib’s Death K hadijah passes away to the Mercy of Allah H is Marriage to Sawdah (May be please with her) in Shawwal, the tenth year of Prophethood Factors inspiring patience and perserverance The Third Phase Calling unto Is lam beyond Makkah Islam being introduced to Arabian Tribes and Individuals Hope inspiring Breezes from the Madinese Marriage of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) to Aisha (May Allah be please with her) Al-Isra’ and Al-Mir‘raj The First ‘Aqabah Pledge The Muslim Envoy in Madinah T he Second ‘Aqabah Pledge The Vanguard of Migration (in the Cause of Allah) In An-Nadwah (Council) House The Parliament of Quraish Migration of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Life in Madinah The First Phase †¦ The Status Quo in Madinah at the Time of Emigration A New Society being built A Charter of Islamic Alliance A Cooperation and Non-Aggression P act with the Jews The Prophet on the Battlefield Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions The Battle of Badr – The First Decisive Battle in the History of Islam Reason of the Battle Some Significant Instances of Devotion Reaction in Makkah Madinah receives the News of Victory The Battle of Badr in its Qur’anic Context The Military Activities between Badr and Uhud Al-Kudr Invasion An Attempt on the Life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Invasion of Bani Qainuqa‘ T he Qainuqa‘ Jews breach the Covenant As-Sawiq Invasion Dhi Amr Invasion Ka‘b bin Al-Ashraf, killed 3 The Invasion of Buhran Z aid bin Harithah leads a Compaign on the Trade Routes of Quraish The Battle of Uhud A Consultation Assembly for a Defence Plan Dividing the Islamic Army into phalanxes and Departure to the Battlefield Para ding the Army P assing the Night between Uhud and Madinah The Rebellion of ‘Abdullah bin Ubai and his Followers The Remainder of the Islamic Army are on the Move to Uhud The Defence Plan The Messenger of Allah (Peace b e upon him) implants the Spirit of Bravery among his Armed Forces Recruitment of the Makkan Army Political Manoeuvres of Quraish T he effort of Quraishite women at waging the Zeal of Men T he Combat A ssassination of Asadullah (the Lion of Allah) Hamzah bin ‘Abdul Muttalib Bringing the Situation under Control From his wife’s lap to Sword -fights and Sorrows The Contribution of the Archers squad to the Battle. The Archers’s Fatal Mistake The Most Awkward Hour in the Messenger’s Life Multilation of the Martyrs Burial of the Martyrs Hamra’ Al-Asad Invasion T he Observations of the Noble Qur’an on the Battle of Uhud L essons and Moralities Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates Abi Salamah Mission An Errand led by ‘Abdullah bin Unais The Event of Ar-Raji‘ The Tragedy of Ma‘una Well Bani An-Nadeer Invasion The Invasion of Najd The Invasion of Badr, the Second The Invasion of Doumat Al-Jaudal Al-Ahzab (the Confederates) Invasion Invading Banu Quraiza Military Activities continued Bani Lihyan Invasion E xpeditions and Delegations continued Bani Al-Mustaliq (Muraisi‘) Ghazwah Sha‘ban 6 Hijri The treacherous Role of the Hypocrites P rior to the Bani Al-Mustaliq Ghazwah T he wicked Role they played in the Course of the Ghazwah of Bani Al-Mustaliq The Slander Affair Delegations and Expeditions following Al-Muraisi‘ Ghazwah Al-Hudaibiyah Treaty (Dhul Qu‘dah 6 A. H. We will write a custom essay sample on Pakistan Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now ) Al-Hudaibiya Treaty: Socio Political Impact The Second Stage A N ew Phase of Islamic Action T he Prophet’s Plans to spread the Message of Islam to beyond Arabia A Deputation to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) L etter to the Vicegerent of Egypt, called Muqawqas A Letter to chosroes, Emperor of Persia The Envoy to Caesar, King of Rome 4 A Letter to Mundhir bin Sawa, Governor of Bahrain A Letter to Haudha bin ‘Ali, Governor of Yamama A Letter to Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus A Letter to the King of ‘Oman, Jaifer, and his Bother ‘Abd Al-Jalandi P ost-Hudaibiyah Hostilities Dhu Qarad Invasion The Conquest of Khaibar (in Moharram, 7 A. H. ) The Actual operation begins T he Second Part of Khaibar Conquered N egotiations Distribution of Spoils Sporadic Invasions The Expedition called Dhat-ur-Riqa‘ (in the year 7 A. H. ) T he Compensatory ‘Umrah (Lesser Pilgrimage) The Battle of Mu’tah Dhat As-Salasil Compaign Khadrah Campaign T he Conquest of Makkah Pre-conquest Events P reparations for the Attach on Makkah, and the Prophet’s Attempt at imposing a News Black-out The Third Stage Hunain Ghazwah The Enemy’s march and their Encampment at Awtas T he war-experienced Man wongs the Leader’s Judgement R econnoitering the Weapons of the Messenger of Allah(Peace be upon him) R econnoitering the Enemy’s Weapons The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) leaves Makkah for Hunain The Islamic Army stunned the Archers and the Attackers Muslims’ return to the Battlefield, and the fierceness of the Fight R everse of Fortunes and the Enemy’s utter Defeat Hot pursuit of the Enemy Ta’if Compaign The Distribution of the Booty at al-Ji‘ranah The Helpers (Al-Ansar) are furious at the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) Arrival of the Hawazin Delegation Lesser Pilgrimage (Al-‘Umrah ) to Makkah and leaving for Madinah M issions and Platoons After the Conquest T he Platoons The Invasion of Tabuk in Rajab, in the year 9 A. H. The underlying Reasons G eneral News about the Byzantines and Ghassanide Preparations for War P articular News about the Byzantine and Ghassanide preparations for War The Muslim Army is leaving for Tabuk The Army of Islam at Tabuk Returning to Madinah T he People Who lagged Behind The Invasion of Tabuk and its Far-Reaching Ramifications The Qur’anic Verses Relating to this Invasion Some Important Events that featured that Year Abu Bakr performs the Pilgrimage A Meditation on the Ghazawat People embrace the Religion of Allah in Large Crowds T he Delegations The Success and Impact of the Call The Farewell Pilgrimage 5 The Last Expeditions The Journey to Allah, the Sublime Symptoms of Farewell T he Start of the Disease T he Last Week F ive days before death F our days before his death A Day or Two prior to Death A Day before his Death The Last day Alive T he Prophet (Peace be upon him) breathes his Last The companions’ concern over the Prophet’s Death Umar’s Attitude Abu Bakr’s Attitude B urial and Farewell Preparations to his Honourable Body The Prophetic Household The Prophet (Peace be upon him), Attributes and Manners Beauty of creation The perfection of Soul and Nobility 6 Location and Nature of Arab Tribes Beyond a shadow of doubt, the biography of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) manifestedly represents an exhaustive embodiment of the sublime Divine Message that he communicated in order to deliver the human race from the swamp of darkness and polytheism to the paradise of light and monotheism. An image, authentic as well as comprehensive, of this Message is therefore only attainable through careful study and profound analysis of both backgrounds and issues of such a biography. In view of this, a whole chapter is here introduced about the nature and development of Arab tribes prior to Islam as well as the circumstantial environment that enwrapped the Prophet’s mission. LOCATION OF THE ARABS: L inguistically, the word â€Å"Arab† means deserts and waste barren land well-nigh waterless and treeless. Ever since the dawn of history, the Arabian Peninsula and its people have been called as such. The Arabian Peninsula is enclosed in the west by the Red Sea and Sinai, in the east by the Arabian Gulf, in the south by the Arabian Sea, which is an extension of the Indian Ocean, and in the north by old Syria and part of Iraq. The area is estimated between a million and a million and a quarter square miles. Thanks to its geographical position, the peninsula has always maintained great importance.. Considering its internal setting, it is mostly deserts and sandy places, which has rendered it inaccessible to foreigners and invaders, and allowed its people complete liberty and independence through the ages, despite the presence of two neighbouring great empires. Its external setting, on the other hand, caused it to be the centre of the old world and provided it with sea and land links with most nations at the time. Thanks to this strategic position the Arabian Peninsula had become the centre for trade, culture, religion and art. ARAB TRIBES: Arab kinfolks have been divided according to lineage into three groups: Perishing Arabs: The ancient Arabs, of whose history little is known, and of whom were ‘Ad, Thamud, Tasam, Jadis, Emlaq, and others. Pure Arabs: Who originated from the progeny of Ya‘rub bin Yashjub bin Qahtan. They were also called Qahtanian Arabs. Arabized Arabs: Who originated from the progeny of Ishmael. They were also called ‘Adnanian Arabs. The pure Arabs – the people of Qahtan – originally lived in Yemen and comprised many tribes, two of which were very famous: 1. Himyar: The most famous of whose septs were Zaid Al-Jamhur, Quda‘a and Sakasic. . Kahlan: The most famous of whose septs were Hamdan, Anmar, Tai’, Mudhhij, Kinda, Lakhm, Judham, Azd, Aws, Khazraj and the descendants of Jafna — the kings of old Syria. Kahlan septs emigrated from Yemen to dwell in the different parts of the Arabian Peninsula prior to the Great Flood (Sail Al-‘Arim of Ma†™rib Dam), due to the failure of trade under the Roman pressure and domain on both sea and land trade routes following Roman occupation of Egypt and Syria. Naturally enough, the competition between Kahlan and Himyar led to the evacuation of the first and the settlement of the second in Yemen. THE EMIGRATING SEPTS OF KAHLAN CAN BE INTO FOUR GROUPS: 1 . Azd: Who, under the leadership of ‘Imran bin ‘Amr Muzaiqba’, wandered in Yemen, sent pioneers and finally headed northwards. Details of their emigration can be summed up as follows: 7 2. Tha‘labah bin ‘Amr left his tribe Al-Azd for Hijaz and dwelt between Tha‘labiyah and Dhi Qar. When he gained strength, he headed for Madinah where he stayed. Of his seed are Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha bin Tha‘labah. Haritha bin ‘Amr, known as Khuza‘a, wandered with his folks in Hijaz until they came to Mar Az-Zahran. Later, they conquered the Haram, and settled in Makkah after having driven away its people, the tribe of Jurhum. ‘Imran bin ‘Amr and his folks went to ‘Oman where they established the tribe of Azd whose children inhabited Tihama and were known as Azd-of-Shanu’a. Jafna bin ‘Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he settled and initiated the kingdom of Ghassan who was so named after a spring of water, in Hijaz, where they s topped on their way to Syria. 2. Lakhm and Judham: Of whom was Nasr bin Rabi‘a, father of Manadhira, Kings of Heerah. 3. Banu Tai’: Who also emigrated northwards to settle by the so- called Aja and Salma Mountains which were consequently named as Tai’ Mountain s. 4. Kinda: Who dwelt in Bahrain but were expelled to Hadramout and Najd where they instituted a powerful government but not for long , for the whole tribe soon faded away. †¢ Another tribe of Himyar, known as Quda‘a, also left Yemen and dwelt in Samawa semidesert on the borders of Iraq. The Arabized Arabs go back in ancestry to their great grandfather Abraham (Peace be upon him) from a town called â€Å"Ar† near Kufa on the west bank of the Euphrates in Iraq. Excavations brought to light great details of the town, Abraham’s family, and the prevalent religions and social circumstances. It is known that Abrahaml (Peace be upon him) eft Ar for Harran and then for Palestine, which he made headquarters for his Message. He wandered all over the area. When he went to E gypt, the Pharaoh tried to do evil to his wife Sarah, but Allah saved her and the Pharaoh’s wicked scheme recoiled on him. He thus came to realize her strong attachment to Allah, and, in acknowledgment of her grace, the Pharaoh rendered his daughter Hagar at Sarah’s service, but Sarah gave Hagar to Abraham as a wife. Abraham returned to Palestine where Hagar gave birth to Ishmael. Sarah became so jealous of Hagar that she forced Abraham to send Hagar and her baby away to a plantless valley on a small hill in Hijaz, by the Sacred House, exposed to the wearing of floods coming right and left. He chose for them a place under a lofty tree above Zamzam near the upper side of the Mosque in Makkah where neither people nor water was available, and went back to Pale stine leaving with his wife and baby a leather case with some dates and a pot of water. Not before long, they ran out of both food and water, but thanks to Allah’s favour water gushed forth to sustain them for sometime. The whole story of Zamzam spring is already known to everybody. Another Yemeni tribe – Jurhum the Second – came and lived in Makkah upon Hagar’s permission, after being said to have lived in the valleys around Makkah. It is mentioned in the Sahih Al-Bukhari that this tribe came to Makkah before Ishmael was a young man while they had passed through that valley long before this event. Abraham used to go to Makkah every now and then to see his wife and son. The number of these journeys is still unknown, but authentic historical resources spoke of four ones. Allah, the Sublime, stated in the Noble Qur’an that He had Abraham see, in his dream, that he slaughtered his son Ishmael, and therefore Abraham stood up to fulfill His Order: †¢ â€Å"Then, when they had both submitted themselves (to the Will of Allah), and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (or on the side of his forehead for slaughtering); and We called out to him: â€Å"O Abraham! You have fulfilled the dream (vision)! † Verily! Thus do we reward the Muhsinun (good-doers, who perform good deeds totally for Allah’s sake only, without any show off or to gain praise or fame, etc. and do them in accordance to Allah’s Orders). Verily, that indeed was a manifest trial — and We ransomed him with a great sacrifice (i. e. a ram)† [37:103-107] 8 It is mentioned in the Genesis that Ishmael was thirteen years older than his brother Ishaq. The sequence of the story of the sacrifice of Ishmael shows that it really happened before Ishaq’s birth, and that Allah’s Promise to give Abraham another son, Ishaq, came a fter narration of the whole story. This story spoke of one journey – at least – before Ishmael became a young man. Al-Bukhari, on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbas, reported the other three journeys; a summary of which goes as follows: When Ishmael became a yo ung man, he learned Arabic at the hand of the tribe of Jurhum, who loved him with great admiration and gave him one of their women as a wife, soon after his mother died. Having wanted to see his wife and son again, Abraham came to Makkah, Ishmael’s marriage, but he didn’t find him at home. He asked Ishmael’s wife about her husband and how they were doing. She complained of poverty, so he asked her to tell Ishmael to change his doorstep. Ishmael understood the message, divorced his wife and got married to the daughter of Mudad bin ‘Amr, chief of the tribe of Jurhum. Once more, Abraham came to see his son, but again didn’t find him at home. He asked his new wife the same previous question, to which she thanked Allah. Abraham asked her to tell Ishmael to keep his doorstep (i. e. to keep her as wife) and went back to Palestine. A third time, Abraham came to Makkah to find Ishmael sharpening an arrow under a lofty tree near Zamzam. The meeting, after a very long journey of separation, was very touching for a father so affectionate and a so dutiful and righteous son. This time, father and son built Al-Ka‘bah and raised its pillars, and Abraham, in compliance with Allah’s Commandment, called unto people to make pilgrimage to it. By the grace of Allah, Ishmael had twelve sons from the daughter of Mudad, whose names were Nabet, Qidar, Edbael, Mebsham, Mishma’, Duma, Micha, Hudud, Yetma, Yetour, Nafis and Qidman, and who ultimately formed twelve tribes inhabiting Makkah and trading between Yemen, geographical Syria and Egypt. Later on, these tribes spread all over, and even outside, the peninsula. All their tidings went into oblivion except for the descendants of Nabet and Qidar. The Nabeteans – sons of Nabet – established a flourishing civilization in the north of Hijaz, they instituted a powerful government which spread out its domain over all neighbouring tribes, and made Petra their capital. Nobody dared challenge their authority until the Romans came and managed to eliminate their kingdom. After extensive research and painstaking investigation, Mr. Sulaiman An-Nadwi came to the conclusion that the Ghassanide kings, along with the Aws and Khazraj were not likely to be Qahtanians but rather Nabeteans. Descendants of Qidar, the son of Ishmael, lived long in Makkah increasing in number, of them issued ‘Adnan and son Ma‘ad, to whom ‘Adnanian Arabs traced back their ancestry. ‘Adnan is the twenty-first grandfather in the series of the Prophetic ancestry. It was said that whenever Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa spoke of his ancestry he would stop at ‘Adnan and say: â€Å"Genealogists tell lies† and did not go farther than him. A group of scholars, however, favoured the probability of going beyond ‘Adnan attaching no significance to the aforementioned Prophetic Hadith. They went on to say that there were exactly forty fathers between ‘Adnan and Abraham (Peace be upon them). Nizar, Ma‘ad’s only son , had four sons who branched out into four great tribes; Eyad, Anmar, Rabi‘a and Mudar. These last two sub-branched into several septs. Rabi‘a fathered Asad, ‘Anazah, ‘Abdul Qais, and Wa’il’s two sons (Bakr and Taghlib), Hanifa and many others. Mudar tribes branched out into two great divisions: Qais ‘Ailan bin Mudar and septs of Elias bin Mudar. Of Qais ‘Ailan were the Banu Saleem, Banu Hawazin, and Banu Ghatafan of whom descended ‘Abs, Zubyan, Ashja‘ and Ghani bin A‘sur. Of Elias bin Mudar were Tamim bin Murra, Hudhail bin Mudrika, Banu Asad bin Khuzaimah and septs of Kinana bin Khuzaimah, of whom came Quraish, the descendants of Fahr bin Malik bin An-Nadr bin Kinana. Quraish branched out into various tribes, the most famous of whom were Jumah, Sahm, ‘Adi, Makhzum, Tayim, Zahra and the three septs of Qusai bin Kilab: ‘Abdud-Dar bin Qusai, Asad bin ‘Abdul ‘Uzza bin Qusai and ‘Abd Manaf bin Qusai. Abd Manaf branched out into four tribes: ‘Abd Shams, Nawfal, Muttalib and Hashim. It is, however, from the family of Hashim that Allah selected Prophet Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah bin ‘Abdul-Muttalib bin Hashim (Peace be upon him). Prophet Mu hammad (Peace be upon him) said: †¢ â€Å"Allah selected Ishmael from the sons of Abraham, Kinana from the sons of Ishma el, Quraish from the sons of Kinana, Hashim from the sons of Quraish and He selected me from the sons of Hashim. † Al-‘Abbas bin ‘Abdul-Muttalib quoted the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) as saying: 9 †¢ Allah created mankind and chose me from the best whereof, He chose the tribes and selected me from the best whereof; and He chose families and selected me from the best whereof. I am the very best in person and family. † Having increased in number, children of ‘Adnan, in pursuit of pastures and water, spread out over various parts of Arabia. The tribe of ‘Abdul Qais, together with some septs of Bakr bin Wa’il and Tamim, emigrated to Bahrain where they dwelt. Banu Hanifa bin Sa‘b bin Ali bin Bakr went to settle in Hijr, the capital of Yamama. All the tribes of Bakr bin Wa’il lived in an area of land which ncluded Yamama, Bahrain, Saif Kazima, the sea shore, the outer borders of Iraq, Ablah and Hait. Most of the tribe of Taghlib lived in the Euphrates area while some of them lived with Bakr. Banu Tamim lived in Basra semi-desert. Banu Saleem lived in the vicinity of Madinah on the land stretching from Wadi Al-Qura to Khaibar onwards to the eastern mountains to Harrah. Thaqif dwelt in Ta’if and Hawazin east of Makkah near Autas on the road from Makkah to Basra. Banu Asad lived on the land east of Taima’ and west of Kufa, while family of Tai’ lived between Banu Asad and Taima’. They were five -day-walk far from Kufa. Zubyan inhabited the plot of and between Taima’ and Hawran. Some septs of Kinana lived in Tihama, while septs of Quraish dwelt in Makkah and its suburbs. Quraish remained completely disunited until Qusai bin Kilab managed to rally their ranks on honourable terms attaching major prominence to their status and importance. 10 RULERSHIP AND PRINCESHIPAMONG THE ARABS W hen talking about the Arabs before Islam,we deem it necessary to draw a mini-picture of the history of rulership, princeship, sectarianism and the religious dominations of the Arabs, so as to facilitate the understanding of emergent circumstances when Islam appeared. When the sun of Islam rose, rulers of Arabia were of two kinds: crowned kings, who were in fact not independent; and heads of tribes and clans, who enjoyed the same authorities and privileges possessed by crowned kings and were mostly independent, though some of whom could have shown some kind of submission to a crowned king. The crowned kings were only those of Yemen, Heerah and Ghassan. All other rulers of Arabia were non-crowned. RULERSHIP IN YEMEN: T he folks of Sheba were one of the oldest nations of the pure Arabs, who lived in Yemen. Excavations at â€Å"Or† brought to light their existence twenty ive centuries B. C. Their civilization flourished, and their domain spread eleven centuries B. C. It is possible to divide their ages according to the following estimation: 1. The centuries before 650 B. C. , during which their kings were called â€Å"Makrib Sheba†. Their capital was â€Å"Sarwah†, also known as â€Å"Khriba†, whose ruins lie in a spot, a day’s walk from the western side of â€Å"Ma’rib†. During this period, they started building the â€Å"Dam of Ma’rib† which had great importance in the history of Yemen. Sheba was also said to have h ad so great a domain that they had colonies inside and outside Arabia. . From 650 B. C. until 115 B. C. During this era, they gave up the name â€Å"Makrib† and assumed the designation of â€Å"Kings of Sheba†. They also made Ma’rib their capital instead of Sarwah. The ruins of Ma’rib lie at a distance of sixty miles east of San‘a. 3. From 115 B. C. until 300 A. D. During this period, the tribe of Himyar conquered the kingdom of Sheba and took Redan for capital instead of Ma’rib. Later on, Redan was called â€Å"Zifar†. Its ruins still lie on Mudawwar Mountain near the town of â€Å"Yarim†. During this period, they began to decline and fall. Their trade failed to a very great extent, firstly, because of the Nabetean domain over the north of Hijaz; secondly, because of the Roman superiority over the naval trade routes after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Syria and the north of Hijaz; and thirdly, because of the inter-tribal warfare. Thanks to the three above -mentioned factors, families of Qahtan were disunited and scatteredout. 4. From 300 A. D. until Islam dawned on Yemen. This period witnessed a lot of disorder and turmoil. The great many and civil wars rendered the people of Yemen liable to foreign subjection and hence loss of independence. During this era, the Romans conquered ‘Adn and even helped the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) to occupy Yemen for the first time in 340 A. D. , making use of the constant intra -tribal conflict of Hamdan and Himyar. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) occupation of Yemen lasted until 378 A. D. , whereafter Yemen regained it s independence. Later on, cracks began to show in Ma’rib Dam which led to the Great Flood (450 or 451 A. D. ) mentioned in the Noble Qur’an. This was a great event which caused the fall of the entire Yemeni civilization and the dispersal of the nations livin g therein. In 523, Dhu Nawas, a Jew, despatched a great campaign against the Christians of Najran in order to force them to convert into Judaism. Having refused to do so, they were thrown alive into a big ditch where a great fire had been set. The Qur’an referred to this event: †¢ â€Å"Cursed were the people of the ditch. † [85:4] This aroused great wrath among the Christians, and especially the Roman emperors, who not only instigated the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) against Arabs but also assembled a large fleet which helped the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) army, of seventy thousand warriors, to effect a second conquest of Yemen in 525 A. D. under the leadership of Eriat, who was granted rulership over Yemen, a position he held until he was assassinated by one of his army leaders, Abraha, who, after reconciliation with the king of Abyssinia, took rulership over Yemen and, later on, deployed his soldiers to demolish AlKa‘bah, and , hence, he and his soldiers came to be known as the â€Å"M en of the Elephant†. 11 After the â€Å"Elephant† incident, the people of Yemen, under the leadership of Ma‘dikarib bin Saif Dhu Yazin Al-Himyari, and through Persian assistance, revolted against the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invaders, restored independence and appointed Ma‘dikarib as their king. However, Ma‘dikarib was assassinated by an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) he used to have him around for service and protection. The family of Dhu Yazin was thus deprived of royalty forever. Kisra, the Persian king, appointed a Persian ruler over San‘a and thus made Yeme n a Persian colony. Persian rulers maintained rulership of Yemen until Badhan, the last of them, embraced Islam in 638 A. D. , thus terminating the Persian domain over Yemen. RULERSHIP IN HEERAH: Ever since Korosh the Great (557-529 B. C. ) united the Persians, they ruled Iraq and its neighbourhood. Nobody could shake off their authority until Alexander the Great vanquished their king Dara I and thus subdued the Persians in 326 B. C. Persian lands were thenceforth divided and ruled by kings known as â€Å"the Kings of Sects†, an era which lasted until 230 A. D. Meanwhile, the Qahtanians occupied some Iraqi territories, and were later followed by some ‘Adnanians who managed to share some parts of Mesopotamia with them. The Persians, under the leadership of Ardashir, who had established the Sasanian state in 226 A. D, regained enough unity and power to subdue the Arabs living in the vicinity of their kingdom, and force Quda‘a to leave for Syria , leaving the people of Heerah and Anbar under the Persian domain. During the time of Ardashir, Juzaima Alwaddah exercised rulership over Heerah, Rabi‘a and Mudar, and Mesopotamia. Ardashir had reckoned that it was impossible for him to rule the Arabs directly and prevent them from attacking his borders unless he appointed as king one of them who enjoyed support and power of his tribe. He had also seen that he could make use of them against the Byzantine kings who always used to harass him. At the same time, the Arabs of Iraq could face the Arabs of Syria who were in the hold of Byzantine kings. However, he deemed it fit to keep a Persian battalion under command of the king of Heerah to be used against those Arabs who might rebel against him. After the death of Juzaima around 268 A. D. , ‘Amr bin ‘Adi bin Nasr Al-Lakhmi was appointed as king by the Persian King Sabour bin Ardashir. ‘Amr was the first of the Lakhmi kings who ruled Heerah until the Persians appointed Qabaz bin Fairuz in whose reign appeared someone called Mazdak, who called for dissoluteness in social life. Qabaz, and many of his subjects, embraced Mazdak’s religion and even called upon the king of Heerah, Al-Munzir bin Ma’ As-Sama’, to follow after. When the latter, because of his pride and self-respect, rejected their orders, Qabaz discharged him and nominated Harith bin ‘Amr bin Hajar Al-Kindi, who had accepted the Mazdaki doctrine. No sooner did Kisra Anu Shairwan succeed Qabaz than he, due to hatred of Mazdak’s philosophy, killed Mazdak and many of his followers, restored Munzir to the throne of Heerah and gave orders to summon under arrest Harith ho sought refuge with Al-Kalb tribe where he spent the rest of his life. Sons of Al-Munzir bin Ma’ As-Sama’ maintained kingship a long time until An-Nu‘man bin Al-Munzir took over. Because of a calumny borne by Zaid bin ‘Adi Al-‘Abbadi, the Persian king got angry with An-Nu‘man and summoned him to his palace. An -Nu‘man went secretly to Hani bin Mas‘ud, ch ief of Shaiban tribe, and left his wealth and family under the latter’s protection, and then presented himself before the Persian king, who immediately threw him into prison where he perished. Kisra, then, appointed Eyas bin Qubaisa At-Ta’i as king of Heerah. Eyas was ordered to tell Hani bin Mas‘ud to deliver An-Nu‘man’s charge up to Kisra. No sooner than had the Persian king received the fanatically motivated rejection on the part of the Arab chief, he declared war against the tribe of Shaiban and mobilized his troops and warriors under the leadership of King Eyas to a place called Dhee Qar which witnessed a most furious battle wherein the Persians were severely routed by the Arabs for the first time in history. That was very soon after the birth of Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa eight months after Eyas bin Qubaisah’s rise to power over Heerah. After Eyas, a Persian ruler was appointed over Heerah, but in 632 A. D. the authority there returned to the family of Lukhm when Al-Munzir Al-Ma‘rur took over. Hardly had the latter’s reign lasted for eight months when Khalid bin Al-Waleed fell upon him with Muslim soldiers. RULERSHIP IN GEOGRAPHICAL SYRIA: I n the process of the tribal emigrations, some septs of Quda‘a reached the borders of Syria where they settled down. They belonged to the family of Sulaih bin Halwan, of whose offspring were the sons of Duj‘am bin Sulaih known as Ad -Duja‘ima. Such septs of Quda‘a were used by the Byzantines in the defence of the Byzantine borders against both Arab Bedouin raiders and the Persians, and enjoyed autonomy for a considerable phase of time which is said to have lasted for the whole second century A. D. One of their most famous kings was Zyiad bin Al-Habula. Their authority however came to an end upon defeat by the Ghassanides who were consequently granted the proxy rulership over the Arabs of Syria and had Dumat Al-Jandal as their headquarters, which lasted until 12 the battle of Yarmuk in the year 13 A. H. Their last king Jabala bin Al-Aihum embraced Islam during the reign of the Chief of Believers, ‘Umar bin Al-Khattab (May Allah be pleased with him). RULERSHIP IN HIJAZ: Ishmael (Peace be upon him) administered authority over Makkah as well as custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary throughout his lifetime. Upon his death, at the age of 137, two of his sons, Nabet and Qidar, succeeded him. Later on, their maternal grandfather, Mudad bin ‘Amr Al-Jurhumi took over, thus transferring rulership over Makkah to the tribe of Jurhum, preserving a venerable position, though very little authority for Ishmael’s sons due to their father’s exploits in building the Holy Sanctuary, a position they held until the decline of the tribe of Jurhum shortly before the rise of Bukhtanassar. The political role of the ‘Adnanides had begun to gain firmer grounds in Makkah, which could be clearly attested by the fact that upon Bukhtanassar’s first invasion of the Arabs in ‘Dhati ‘Irq’, the leader of the Arabs was not from Jurhum. Upon Bukhtanassar’s second invasion in 587 B. C. , however, the ‘Adnanides were frightened out to Yemen, while Burmia An-Nabi fled to Syria with Ma‘ad, but when Bukhtanassar’s pressure lessened, Ma‘ad returned to Makkah to find none of the tribe of Jurhum except Jursham bin Jalhamah, whose daughter, Mu‘ana, was given to Ma‘ad as wife who, later, had a son by him named Nizar. On account of difficult living conditions and destitution prevalent in Makkah, the tribe of Jurhum began to ill-treat visitors of the Holy Sanctuary and extort its funds, which aroused resentment and hatred of the ‘Adnanides (sons of Bakr bin ‘Abd Munaf bin Kinana) who, with the help of the tribe of Khuza‘a that had come to settle in a neighbouring area called Marr Az -Zahran, invaded Jurhum and frightened them out of Makkah leaving rulership to Quda‘a in the middle of the second century A. D. Upon leaving Makkah, Jurhum filled up the well of Zamzam, levelled its place and buried a great many things in it. Amr bin Al-Harith bin Mudad Al-Jurhumi was reported by Ibn Ishaq, the wellknown historian, to have buried the two gold deer together with the Black Stone as well as a lot of jewelry and swords in Zamzam, prior to their sorrowful escape to Yemen. Ishmael’s epoch is estimated to have lasted for twenty centuries B. C. , which means that Jurhum stayed in Makkah for twenty-one centuries and held rulership there for about twenty centuries. Upon defeat of Jurhum, the tribe of Khuza‘a monopolized rulership over Makkah. Mudar tribes, however, enjoyed three privileges: The First: Leading pilgrims from ‘Arafat to Muzdalifah and then from Mina to the ‘Aqabah Stoning Pillar. This was the authority of the family of Al-Ghawth bin Murra, one of the septs of Elias bin Mudar, who were called ‘Sofa’. This privilege meant that the pilgrims were not allowed to throw stones at Al-‘Aqabah until one of the ‘Sofa’ men did that. When they had finished stoning and wanted to leave the valley of Mina, ‘Sofa’ men stood on the two sides of Al-‘Aqabah and nobody would pass that position until the men of ‘Sofa’ passed and cleared the way for the pilgrims. When Sofa perished, the family of Sa‘d bin Zaid Manat from Tamim tribe took over. The Second: Al-Ifadah (leaving for Mina after Muzdalifah) on sacrifice morning, and this was the responsibility of the family of Adwan. The Third: Deferment of the sacred months, and this was the responsibility of the family of Tamim bin ‘Adi from Bani Kinana. Khuza‘a’s reign in Makkah lasted for three hundred years, during which, the ‘Adnanides spread all over Najd and the sides of Bahrain and Iraq, while small septs of Quraish remained on the sides of Makkah; they were Haloul, Harum and some families of Kinana. They enjoyed no privileges in Makkah or in the Sacred House until the appearance of Qusai bin Kila b, whose father is said to have died when he was still a baby, and whose mother was subsequently married to Rabi‘a bin Haram, from the tribe of Bani ‘Udhra. Rabi‘a took his wife and her baby to his homeland on the borders of Syria. When Qusai became a young man, he returned to Makkah, which was ruled by Halil bin Habsha from Khuza‘a, who gave Qusai his daughter, Hobba, as wife. After Halil’s death, a war between Khuza‘a and Quraish broke out and resulted in Qusai’s taking hold of Makkah and the Sacred House. THE REASONS OF THIS WAR HAVE BEEN ILLUSTRATED IN THREE VERSIONS: †¢ The First: Having noticed the spread of his offspring, increase of his property and exalt of his honour after Halil’s death, Qusai found himself more entitled to shoulder responsibility of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House than the tribes of Khuza‘a and Bani Bakr. He also advocated that Quraish were the chiefs of Ishmael’s descendants. Therefore he consulted some men from Quraish and Kinana concerning his desire to evacuate Khuza‘a and Bani Bakr from Makkah. They took a liking to his opinion and supported him. 13 The Second: Khuza‘a claimed that Halil requested Qusai to hold custodianship of Al-Ka‘bah and rulership over Makkah after his death. The Third: Halil g ave the right of Al-Ka‘bah service to his daughter Hobba and appointed Abu Ghabshan Al-Khuza‘i to function as her agent whereof. Upon Halil’s death, Qusai bought this right for a leather bag of wine, which aroused dissatisfaction among the men of Khuza‘a a nd they tried to keep the custodianship of the Sacred House away from Qusai. The latter, however, with the help of Quraish and Kinana, managed to take over and even to expel Khuza‘a completely from Makkah. Whatever the truth might have been, the whole affair resulted in the deprivation of Sofa of their privileges, previously mentioned, evacuation of Khuza‘a and Bakr from Makkah and transfer of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary to Qusai, after fierce wars between Qusai and Khuza‘a inflicting heavy casualties on both sides, reconciliation and then arbitration of Ya‘mur bin ‘Awf, from the tribe of Bakr, whose judgement entailed eligibility of Qusai’s rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House, Qusai’s irresponsibility for Khuza‘a’s blood shed, and imposition of blood money on Khuza‘a. Qusai’s reign over Makkah and the Sacred House began in 440 A. D. and allowed him, and Quraish afterwards, absolute rulership over Makkah and undisputed custodianship of the Sacred House to which Arabs from all over Arabia came to pay homage. Qusai brought his kinspeople to Makkah and allocated it to them, allowing Quraish some dwellings there. An-Nus’a, the families of Safwan, Adwan, Murra bin ‘Awf preserved the same rights they used to enjoy before his arrival. A significant achievement credited to Qusai was the establishment of An -Nadwa House (an assembly house) on the northern side of Al-Ka‘bah Mosque, to serve as a meeting place for Quraish. This very house had benefited Quraish a lot because it secured unity of opinions amongst them and cordial solution to their problem. QUSAI HOWEVER ENJOYED THE FOLLONG PRIVILEGED OF LEADERSHIP AND HONOUR: 1 . Presiding over An -Nadwa House meetings where consultations relating to serious issues were conducted, and marriage contracts were announced. 2. The Standard: He monopolized in his hand issues relevant to war launching. 3. Doorkeeping of Al-Ka‘bah: He was the only one eligible to open its gate, and was responsible for its service and protection. 4. Providing water for the Pilgrims: This means that he used to fill basins sweetened by dates and raisins for the pilgrims to drink. . Feeding Pilgrims: This means making food for pilgrims who could not afford it. Qusai even imposed on Quraish annual land tax, paid at the season of pilgrimage, for food. It is noteworthy however that Qusai singled out ‘Abd Manaf, a son of his, for honour and prestige though he was not his elder son (‘Abd Ad -Dar was), and entrusted him with such responsibilities as chairing of An-Nadwa House, the standard, the doorkeeping of Al-Ka‘bah, providing water and food for pilgrims. Due to the fact that Qusai’s deeds were regarded as unquestionable and his orders inviolable, his death gave no rise to conflicts among his sons, but it later did among his grand children, for no sooner than ‘Abd Munaf had died, his sons began to have rows with their cousins — sons of ‘Abd Ad -Dar, which would have given rise to dissension and fighting among the whole tribe of Quraish, had it not been for a peace treaty whereby posts were reallocated so as to preserve feeding and providing water for pilgrims for the sons of ‘Abd Munaf; while An -Nadwa House, the flag and the doorkeeping of Al-Ka‘bah were maintained for the sons of ‘Abd Ad -Dar. The sons of ‘Abd Munaf, however, cast the lot for their charge, and consequently left the charge of food and water giving to Hashim bin ‘Abd Munaf, upon whose death, the charge was taken over by a brother of his called Al-Muttalib bin ‘Abd Manaf and afterwards by ‘Abd Al-Muttalib bin Hashim, the Prophet’s grandfather, whose sons assumed this position until the rise of Islam, during which ‘Abbas bin ‘Abdul-Muttalib was in charge. Many other posts were distriamong people of Quraish for establishing the pillars of a new democratic petite state with government offices and councils similar to those of today. Enlisted as follows are some of these posts. 1. Casting the lots for the idols was allocated to Bani Jumah. 2. Noting of offers and sacrifices, settlement of disputes and relevant is sues were to lie in the hands of Bani Sahm. 3. Consultation was to go to Bani Asad. 4. Organization of blood-money and fines was with Bani Tayim. 14 5. Bearing the national banner was with Bani Omaiyah. 6. The military institute, footmen and cavalry would be Bani Makhzum’s responsibility. 7. Bani ‘Adi would function as foreign mediators. RULERSHIP IN PAN-ARABIA: We have previously mentioned the Qahtanide and ‘Adnanide emigrations, and division of Arabia between these two tribes. Those tribes dwelling near Heerah were subordinate to the Arabian king of Heerah, while those dwelling in the Syrian semi-desert were under domain of the Arabian Ghassanide king, a sort of dependency that was in reality formal rather than actual. However, those living in the hinder deserts enjo yed full autonomy. These tribes in fact had heads chosen by the whole tribe which was a demi-government based on tribal solidarity and collective interests in defence of land and property. Heads of tribes enjoyed dictatorial privileges similar to those of kings, and were rendered full obedience and subordination in both war and peace. Rivalry among cousins for rulership, however, often drove them to outdo one another in entertaining guests, affecting generosity, wisdom and chivalry for the sole purpose of outranking their rivals, and gaining fame among people especially poets who were the official spokesmen at the time. Heads of tribes and masters had special claims to spoils of war such as the quarter of the spoils, whatever he chose for himself, or found on his way back or even the remaining indivisible spoils. THE POLITICAL SITUATION: T he three Arab regions adjacent to foreigners suffered great weakness and inferiority. The people there were either masters or slaves, rulers or subordinates. Masters, especially the foreigners, had claim to every advantage; slaves had nothing but responsibilities to shoulder. In other words, arbitrary autocratic rulership brought about encroachment on the rights of subordinates, ignorance, oppression, iniquity, injustice and hardship, and turning them into people groping in darkness and ignorance, viz. fertile land which rendered its fruits to the rulers and men of power to extravagantly dissipate on their pleasures and enjoyments, whims and desires, tyranny and aggression. The tribes living near these regions were fluctuating between Syria and Iraq, whereas those living inside Arabia were disunited and governed by tribal conflicts and racial and religious disputes. They had neither a king to sustain their independence nor a supporter to seek advice from, or depend upon, in hardships. The rulers of Hijaz, however, were greatly esteemed and respected by the Arabs, and were considered as rulers and servants of the religious centre. Rulership of Hijaz was, in fact, a mixture of secular and official precedence as well as religious leadership. They ruled among the Arabs in the name of religious leadership and always monopolized the custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary and its neighbourhood. They looked after the interests of A l-Ka‘bah visitors and were in charge of putting Abraham’s code into effect. They even had such offices and departments like those of the parliaments of today. However, they were too weak to carry the heavy burden, as this evidently came to light during the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invasion. 15 RELIGIONS OF THE ARABS Most of the Arabs had complied with the call of Ishmael (Peace be upon him) , and professed the religion of his father Abraham (Peace be upon him) They had worshipped Allah, professed His Oneness a nd followed His religion a long time until they forgot part of what they had been reminded of. However, they still maintained such fundamental beliefs such as monotheism as well as various other aspects of Abraham’s religion, until the time when a chief of Khuza‘a, namely ‘Amr bin Luhai, who was renowned for righteousness, charity, reverence and care for religion, and was granted unreserved love and obedience by his tribesmen, came back from a trip to Syria where he saw people worship idols, a phenomenon he approved of and believed it to be righteous since Syria was the locus of Messengers and Scriptures, he brought with him an idol (Hubal) which he placed in the middle of Al-Ka‘bah and summoned people to worship it. Readily enough, paganism spread all over Makkah and, thence, to Hijaz, people of Makkah being custodians of not only the Sacred House but the whole Haram as well. A great many idols, bearing different names, were introduced into the area. An idol called ‘Manat’, for instance, was worshipped in a place known as Al-Mushallal nea r Qadid on the Red Sea. Another, ‘Al-Lat’ in Ta’if, a third, ‘Al-‘Uzza’ in the valley of Nakhlah, and so on and so forth. Polytheism prevailed and the number of idols increased everywhere in Hijaz. It was even mentioned that ‘Amr bin Luhai, with the help of a jinn companion who told him that the idols of Noah’s folk – Wadd, Suwa‘, Yaguth, Ya‘uk and Nasr – were buried in Jeddah, dug them out and took them to Tihama. Upon pilgrimage time, the idols were distributed among the tribes to take back home. Every tribe, and house, had their own idols, and the Sacred House was also overcrowded with them. On the Prophet’s conquest of Makkah, 360 idols were found around Al-Ka‘bah. He broke them down and had them removed and burned up. Polytheism and worship of idols became the most prominent feature of the religion of pre -Islam Arabs despite alleged profession of Abraham’s religion. Traditions and ceremonies of the worship of their idols had been mostly created by ‘Amr bin Luhai, and were deemed as good innovations rather than deviations from Abraham’s religion. Some features of their worship of idols were: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Self-devotion to the idols, seeking refuge with them, acclamation of their names, calling for their help in hardship, and supplication to them for fulfillment of wishes, hopefully that the idols (i. e. , heathen gods) would mediate with Allah for the fulfillment of people’s wishes. Performing pilgrimage to the idols, circumrotation round them, self-abasement and even prostrating themselves before them. Seeking favour of idols through various kinds of sacrifices and immolations, which is mentioned in the Qur’anic verses: â€Å"And that which is sacrificed (slaughtered) on An -Nusub (stone-altars)† [5:3] Allah also says: â€Å"Eat not (O believers) of that (meat) on which Allah’s Name has not been pronounced (at the time of the slaughtering of the animal). † [6:121] †¢ Consecration of certain portions of food, drink, cattle, and crops to idols. Surprisingly enough, port ions were also consecrated to Allah Himself, but people often found reasons to transfer parts of Allah’s portion to idols, but never did the opposite. To this effect, the Qur’anic verses go: †¢ â€Å"And they assign to Allah a share of the tilth and cattle which He has created, and they say: ‘This is for Allah according to their pretending, and this is for our (Allah’s so-called) partners. ’ But the share of their (Allah’s so-called) ‘partners’, reaches not Allah, while the share of Allah reaches their (Allah’s so-called) ‘partners’. Evil is the way they judge. † [6:136] 16 †¢ Currying favours with these idols through votive offerings of crops and cattle, to which effect, the Qur’an goes: †¢ â€Å"And according to their pretending, they say that such and such cattle and crops are forbidden, and none should eat of them except those whom we allow. And (they say) there are cattle forbidden to be used for burden or any other work, and cattle on which (at slaughtering) the Name of Allah is not pronounced; lying against Him (Allah). † [6:138] †¢ Dedication of certain animals (such as Bahira, Sa’iba, Wasila and Hami) to idols, which meant sparing such animals from useful work for the sake of these heathen gods. Bahira, as reported by the well-known historian, Ibn Ish, was daughter of Sa’iba which was a female camel that gave birth to ten successive female animals, but no male ones, was set free and forbidden to yoke, burden or being sheared off its wool, or milked (but for guests to drink from); and so was done to all her female offspring which were given the name ‘Bahira’, after having their ears slit. The Wasila was a female sheep which had ten successive female daughters in five pregnancies. Any new births from this Wasila were assigned only for male people. The Hami was a male camel which produced ten progressive females, and was thus similarly forbidden. In mention of this, the Qur’anic verses go: †¢ â€Å"Allah has not instituted things like Bahira ( a she-camel whose milk was spared for the idols and nobody was allowed to milk it) or a Sa’iba (a she camel let loose for free pasture for their false gods, e. g. idols, etc. , and othing was allowe d to be c arried on it), or a Wasila (a she-camel set free for idols because it has given birth to a she-camel at its first delivery and then again gives birth to a she-camel at its second delivery) or a Ham (a stallion-camel freed from work for their idols, after it had finished a number of copulations assigned for it, all these animals were liberated in honour of idols as practised by pagan Arabs in the pre Islamic period). But those who disbelieve, invent lies against Allah, and most of them have no understanding. † [5:103] Allah also says: †¢ â€Å"And they say: What is in the bellies of such and such cattle (milk or foetus) is for our males alone, and forbidden to our females (girls and women), but if it is born dead, then all have shares therein. † [6:139] It has been authentically reported that such superstitions were first invented by ‘Amr bin Luhai. The Arabs believed that such idols, or heathen gods, would bring them nearer to Allah, lead them to Him, and mediate with Him for their sake, to which effect, the Qur’an goes: †¢ â€Å"We worship them only that they may bring us near to Allah. † [39:3], and â€Å"And they worship besides Allah things that hurt them not, nor profit them, and they say: These are our intercessors with Allah. † [10:18] Another divinatory tradition among the Arabs was casting of Azlam (i. e. featherless arrows which were of three kinds: one showing ‘yes’, another ‘no’ and a third was blank) which they used to do in case of serious matters like travel, marriage and the like. If the lot showed ‘yes’, they would do, if ‘no’, they would delay for the next year. Other kinds of Azlam were cast for water, blood-money or showed ‘from you’, ‘not from you’, or ‘Mulsaq’ (consociated). In cases of doubt in filiation they would resort to the idol of Hubal, with a hundred-came l gift, for the arrow caster. Only the arrows would then decide the sort of relationship. If the arrow showed (from you), then it was decided that the child belonged to the tribe; if it showed (from others), he would then be regarded as an ally, but if (consociated) appeared, the person would retain his position but with no lineage or alliance contract. This was very much like gambling and arrow-shafting whereby they used to divide the meat of the camels they slaughtered according to this tradition. Moreover, they used to have a deep conviction in the tidings of soothsayers, diviners and astrologers. A soothsayer used to traffic in the business of foretelling future events and claim knowledge of private secrets and having jinn subordinates who would communicate the news to him. Some soothsayers claimed that they could uncover the unknown by means of a granted power, while other diviners boasted they could divulge the secrets through a cause-and-effect-inductive process that would lead to detecting a stolen c ommodity, location of a theft, a stray animal, and the like. The astrologer belonged to a third category who used to observe the stars and calculate their movements and orbits whereby he would foretell the future. Lending credence to this news constituted a clue to their conviction that attached special significance to the movements of particular stars with regard to rainfall. The belief in signs as betokening future events, was, of course common among the Arabians. Some days and months and particular animals were regarded as ominous. They also believed that the soul of a murdered person would fly in the wilderness and would never rest at rest until revenge was 17 taken. Superstition was rampant. Should a deer or bird, when released, turn right then what they embarked on would be regarded auspicious, otherwise they would get pessimistic and withhold from pursuing it. People of pre -Islamic period, whilst believing in superstition, they still retained some of the Abrahamic traditions such as devotion to the Holy Sanctuary, circumambulation, observance of pilgrimage, the vigil on ‘Arafah and offering sacrifices, all of these were observed fully despite some innovations that adulterated these holy rituals. Quraish, for example, out of arrogance, feeling of superiority to other tribes and pride in their custodianship of the Sacred House, would refrain from going to ‘Arafah with the crowd, instead they would stop short at Muzdalifah. The Noble Qur’an rebuked and told them: †¢ â€Å"Then depart from the place whence all the people depart. [2:199] Another heresy, deeply established in their social tradition, dictated that they would not eat dried yoghurt or cooked fat, nor would they enter a tent made of camel hair or seek shade unless in a house of adobe bricks, so long as they were committed to the intention of pilgrimage. The y also, out of a deeply-rooted misconception, denied pilgrims, other than Makkans, access to the food they had brought when they wanted to make pilgrimage or lesser pilgrimage. They ordered pilgrims coming from outside Makkah to circumambulate Al-Ka‘bah in Quraish uniform clothes, but if they could not afford them, men were to do so in a state of nudity, and women with only some piece of cloth to hide their groins. Allah says in this concern: †¢ â€Å"O Children of Adam! Take your adornment (by wearing your clean clothes), while praying [and going round (the Tawaf of) the Ka‘bah†. [7:31] If men or women were generous enough to go round Al-Ka‘bah in their clothes, they had to discard them after circumambulation for good. When the Makkans were in a pilgrimage consecration state, they would not enter their houses through the doors but through holes they used to dig in the back walls. They used to regard such behaviour as deeds of piety and god-fearing. This practice was prohibited by the Qur’an: †¢ â€Å"It is not Al-Birr (piety, righteousness, etc. ) that you enter the houses from the back but Al-Birr (is the quality of the one) who fears Allah. So enter houses through their proper doors, and fear Allah that you may be successful. † [2:189] Such was the religious life in Arabia, polytheism, idolatry, and superstition. Judaism, Christianity, Magianism and Sabianism, however, could find their ways easily into Arabia. The migration of the Jews from Palestine to Arabia passed through two phases: first, as a result of the pressure to which they were exposed, the destruction of the their temple, and taking most of them as captives to Babylon, at the hand of the King Bukhtanassar. In the year B. C. 587 some Jews left Palestine for Hijaz and settled in the northern areas whereof. The second phase started with the Roman occupation of Palestine under the leadership of Roman Buts in 70 A. D. This resulted in a tidal wave of Jewish migration into Hijaz, and Yathrib, Khaibar and Taima’, in particular. Here, they made proselytes of several tribes, built forts and castles, and lived in villages. Judaism managed to play an important role in the pre -Islam political life. When Islam dawned on that land, there had already been several famous Jewish tribes — Khabeer, Al-Musta liq, An-Nadeer, Quraizah and Qainuqa‘. In some versions, the Jewish tribes counted as many as twenty. Judaism was introduced into Yemen by someone called As‘ad Abi Karb. He had gone to fight in Yathrib and there he embraced Judaism and then went back taking with him two rabbis from Bani Quraizah to instruct thpeople of Yemen in this new religion. Judaism found a fertile soil there to propagate and gain adherents. After his death, his son Yusuf Dhu Nawas rose to power, attacked the Christian community in Najran and ordered them to embrace Judaism. When they refused, he ordered that a pit of fire be dug and all the Christians indiscriminately be dropped to burn therein. Estimates say that between 20-40 thousand Christians were killed in that human massacre. The Qur’an related part of that story in Al-Buruj (zodiacal signs) Chapter. Christianity had first made its appearance in Arabia following the entry of the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) and Roman colonists into that country. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) colonizatio n forces in league with Christian missions entered Yemen as a retaliatory reaction for the iniquities of Dhu Nawas, and started vehemently to propagate their faith ardently. They even built a church and called it Yemeni Al-Ka‘bah with the aim of directing the Arab pilgrimage caravans towards Yemen, and then made an attempt to demolish the Sacred House in Makkah. Allah, the Almighty, however did punish them and made an example of them – here and hereafter. A Christian missionary called Fimion, and known for his ascetic behaviour and working miracles, had likewise infiltrated into Najran. There he called people to Christianity, and by virtue of his honesty and truthful devotion, he managed to persuade them to respond positively to his invitation and embrace Christianity. The principal tribes that embraced Christianity were Ghassan, Taghlib, Tai’ and some Himyarite kings as well as other tribes living on the borders of the Roman Empire. 18 Magianism was also popular among the Arabs living in the neighbourhood of Persia, Iraq, Bahrain, Al-Ahsa’ and some areas on the Arabian Gulf coast. Some Yemenis are also reported to have professed Magianism during the Persian occupation. As for Sabianism, excavations in Iraq revealed that it had been popular amongst Kaldanian folks, the Syrians and Yemenis. With the advent of Judaism and Christianity, however, Sabianism began to give way to the new religions, although it retained some followers mixed or adjacent to the Magians in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf. THE RELIGIOUS SITUATION: Such was the religious life of the Arabians before the advent of Islam. The role that the religions prevalent played was so marginal, in fact it was next to nothing. The polytheists, who faked Abrahamism, were so far detached from its precepts, and totally oblivious of its immanent good manners. They plunged into disobedience and ungodliness, and developed certain peculiar religious superstitions that managed to leave a serious impact on the religious and socio -political life in the whole of Arabia. Judaism turned into abominable hypocrisy in league with hegemony. Rabbis turned into lords to the exclusion of the Lord. They got involved in the practice of dictatorial subjection of people and calling their subordinates to account for the least word or idea. Their sole target turned into acquisition of wealth and power even if it were at the risk of losing their religion, or the emergence of atheism and disbelief. Christianity likewise opened its doors wide to polytheism, and got too difficult to compre hend as a heavenly religion. As a religious practice, it developed a sort of peculiar medley of man and God. It exercised no bearing whatsoever on the souls of the Arabs who professed it simply because it was alien to their style of life and did not have the least relationship with their p How to cite Pakistan Study, Papers